Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

Abram is a well-known biblical character whose life is detailed in Gen. 11:25 25:11. Abram’s name (which means “exalted father”) is changed in Gen. 17:5 to “Abraham,” meaning “father of many nations.”

The narrative account in Genesis details one hundred years of Abraham’s life and moves quickly through the first seventy-five years of events. In just a few verses (11:26–31) we learn that Abram was the son of Terah, the brother of Haran and Nahor, the husband of the barren Sarai (later Sarah), and the uncle of Lot, the son of Haran, who died in Ur of the Chaldees. The plot line marks significant events in Abraham’s life chronologically. He left Harran at the age of 75 (12:4), was 86 when Hagar gave birth to Ishmael (16:16), 99 when the Lord appeared to him (17:17) and when he was circumcised (17:24), 100 when Sarah gave birth to Isaac (21:5), and 175 when he died (25:7). In summary, the biblical narrator paces the reader quickly through the story in such a way as to highlight a twenty-five-year period of Abraham’s life between the ages of 75 and 100.

The NT features Abraham in several significant ways. The intimate connection between God and Abraham is noted in the identification of God as “the God of Abraham” in Acts 7:32 (cf. Exod. 3:6). The NT also celebrates the character of Abraham as a man of faith who received the promise (Gal. 3:9; Heb. 6:15). Abraham is most importantly an example of how one is justified by faith (Rom. 4:1, 12) and an illustration of what it means to walk by faith (James 2:21, 23).

Those who exercise faith in the living God, as did Abraham, are referred to as “children of Abraham” (Gal. 3:7). Regarding the covenant promises made to Abraham in the OT, the NT writers highlight the promises of seed and blessing. According to Paul, the seed of Abraham is ultimately fulfilled in Christ, and those who believe in Christ are the seed of Abraham (Gal. 3:16, 29). In a similar way, those who have Abraham-like faith are blessed (3:9). The blessing imparted to Abraham comes to the Gentiles through the redemption of Christ and is associated with the impartation of the Spirit (3:14).

A barren woman is one who is infertile and without children. The biblical world placed great value on the blessing of having children. Being without children brought despair. This can be seen in Rachel’s despondent plea (Gen. 30:1) and in the fact that wives would offer a servant in their place to bear a child (16:3; 30:3, 9).

In most of the stories about women and infertility, God reversed their circ*mstances: Sarah (Gen. 11:30), Rebekah (25:21), Rachel (30:22), Samson’s mother (Judg. 13:2 3), Hannah (1Sam. 1:2), the Shunammite (2Kings 4:16), Elizabeth (Luke 1:7). For Michal, barrenness appears as a punishment (2Sam. 6:23).

Caring for the barren is part of God’s praiseworthy caring for the needy (Ps. 113:5–9).

Births in the ancient world were the domain of women. The women who bore children were often assisted in the birthing process by midwives (Gen. 35:17; 38:28; Exod. 1:1520).

Many women utilized a birthing stool (Exod. 1:16). Upon birth, the newborn often was washed with water, rubbed with salt, and wrapped in cloths (Ezek. 16:4; Luke 2:7, 12). The OT required women to undergo a rite of purification following childbirth (Exod. 13:2, 20; 34:20; Lev. 12:6–8; Luke 2:22–24). This purification lasted forty days after the birth of a son and eighty days after the birth of a daughter and concluded with the sacrifice of both a burnt offering and a sin offering.

Birthing was valued, and women who were considered to be infertile often faced great shame (1Sam. 1:10–11; Luke 1:25). Pain in childbirth was associated with the sin of Eve (Gen. 3:16), and conversely, absence of pain was interpreted as a sign that a woman was particularly righteous. According to Josephus, Moses was born with no pain to his mother, and the Protevangelium of James indicates the same about Mary’s labor with Jesus.

The Bible sometimes employs the language of birth as a spiritual metaphor. In John 3:3–6 Jesus instructs Nicodemus about the need for spiritual birth by explaining that he must be born again. In Rom. 8:22 Paul describes the whole of creation as experiencing the pain of childbirth as it awaits redemption, and in Gal. 4:19 he says that he is in labor for a second time with the Galatians as he desires the formation of Christ in them.

The word for “blood” in the Bible is used both literally and metaphorically. “Blood” is a significant biblical term for understanding purity boundaries and theological concepts. Blood is a dominant ritual symbol in biblical literature. Blood was used in sacrifices and purification rites, and it was inherently connected to menstruation, animal slaughter, and legal culpability. Among the physical properties of blood are the ability to coagulate, the liquid state of the substance (Rev. 16:34), and the ability to stain (Rev. 19:13). Blood can symbolize moral order in terms of cult, law, and power.

The usage of blood in the OT is predominantly negative. The first direct mention of blood in the biblical text involves a homicide (Gen. 4:10). Henceforward, the shedding of human blood is a main concern (Gen. 9:6). Other concerns pertaining to blood include dietary prohibitions of blood (Lev. 17:10–12), purity issues such as the flow of blood as in menstrual blood (Lev. 15:19–24), and blood as a part of religious rites such as circumcision (Gen. 17:10–11; Exod. 4:24–26).

Leviticus 17:11 contains a central statement in the OT concerning the significant role of blood in the sacrificial system: “The life of a creature is in the blood.” Blood was collected from all animal sacrifices, and blood was poured onto the altar (Lev. 1:5).

The covenant with Abraham was sealed with a covenantal ritual (Gen. 15:10–21). Moses sealed the covenant between the Israelites and God with a blood ritual during which young Israelite men offered young bulls among other sacrifices as fellowship offerings (Exod. 24:5). Moses read the words of the Book of the Covenant and sprinkled the blood of the bulls on the people, saying, “This is the blood of the covenant that the Lord has made with you in accordance with all these words” (Exod. 24:7–8).

During the Passover observance at the time of the exodus, blood was placed on the sides and tops of the doorframes of the Hebrews (Exod. 12:7). Not only altars were sprinkled and thus consecrated with blood, but priests were as well. Aaron and his sons were consecrated by the application of blood to their right earlobe, thumb, and big toe, and the sprinkling of blood and oil on their garments (Exod. 29:20). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest entered the holy of holies and sprinkled blood on the mercy seat to seek atonement for the sins of the people (Lev. 16:15).

Many events in the passion of Christ include references to blood. During the Last Supper, Jesus redefined the last Passover cup: “This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins” (Matt. 26:28). Judas betrayed “innocent blood” (Matt. 27:4), and the money he received for his betrayal was referred to as “blood money” (Matt. 27:6). At Jesus’ trial, Pilate washed his hands and declared, “I am innocent of this man’s blood” (Matt. 27:24).

The apostle Paul wrote that believers are justified by the blood of Christ (Rom. 5:9). This justification or righteous standing with God was effected through Christ’s blood sacrifice (Rom. 3:25–26; 5:8). The writer of Hebrews stressed the instrumental role of blood in bringing about forgiveness (Heb. 9:22). In the picture of the ideal community of Christ, the martyrs in the book of Revelation are situated closest to the throne of God because “they triumphed over him [Satan] by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony; they did not love their lives so much as to shrink from death” (Rev. 12:11). The blood of the Lamb, Christ, is the effective agent here and throughout the NT, bringing about the indirect contact between sinner and God.

Of the 206 bones that compose the adult skeletal structure, the Bible mentions only a few: rib (Gen. 1:2122), hip (Gen. 32:25), skull (Judg. 9:53), jaw (Isa. 30:28), and legs (John 19:31–33). Nevertheless, while bones could be isolated, anatomical description tended more toward a holistic sense so that bones could refer to physical and psychological collapse in laments (Jer. 23:9) or to the entire person as a corpse (Gen. 50:25; 1Sam. 31:13).

Overwhelmingly, however, anatomical “units” are used metaphorically for human emotions or attitudes: shame becomes “decay in [the] bones” (Prov. 12:4), fear makes “bones shake” (Job 4:14), and a sad spirit “dries up the bones” (Prov. 17:22). The phrase “bone of my bones” is an idiom, a kinship formula used to describe unity and close relatives (Gen. 2:23; cf. 2Sam. 5:1).

Burial can refer to the ritual, body preparation, or interment.

Genesis in particular uses some formulaic phases: “died and was gathered to his people” and “rest with [one’s] fathers/ancestors” (25:8; 35:29; 47:30; 49:33; cf. Job 14:10). In Abraham’s death (Gen. 25:8), this “gathering” does not refer to his actual burial, since it occurs between his death and burial; nor was Abraham ever buried with his ancestors (cf. Num. 20:26 [Aaron]; Deut. 32:50 [Moses]). This idiom refers to joining one’s ancestors in the realm of the dead. With communal notions, the phrase also refers to elements of family burial (similarly, “gathered to your people” [Num. 27:13]; “gathered to their ancestors” [Judg. 2:10]).

In Jacob’s obituary he “gathered up” his feet and then was “gathered” to his people (Gen. 49:33 KJV), rich imagery because he had “gathered” his sons (cf. 49:1). This expression is also used of depositing the human remains in a collective family burial site (Judg. 2:10; 2Kings 22:20; cf. Jer. 25:33).

In the genealogically sensitive books of Kings and Chronicles a formula is used for the kings: “Xrested with his ancestors and was buried inY.” Here, “Y” can denote a place such as the City of David (1Kings 2:10; 11:43; 14:31; 2Chron. 16:1314). Authors depart from this formula in order to describe a person’s desecration, such as Jezebel; the dogs consumed her except for her skull, hands, and feet (2Kings 9:37; cf. 1Kings 21:23–24).

Jacob and Joseph receive specialized Egyptian embalming. Embalming preserved a more holistic persona through use of special fluids and wrappings for seventy days (Gen. 50:2–3, 26). Death usually required immediate burial, even for criminals (Deut. 21:1–9, 22–23; 1Kings 13:24–30). Outside Israel, the inclusion of grave utensils (e.g., juglets, cooking pots, bowls, and jewelry) with the deceased was indicative of a person’s status and needs in the afterlife. The OT prophets forbade certain practices of mourning such as self-mutilation (Lev. 21:1–6; cf. Amos 6:6–7).

In the NT, burial could include treatment with spices for odorific and purification reasons (Luke 23:56; John 19:40). Placed on a bench (mishkab, “resting place”), the body was covered in wrappings and a special facecloth (John 11:44). Familial respect required demonstration of grief with laments (Acts 8:2; cf. 1Kings 13:29–30; Jer. 9:17–22).

Burning Bush – Moses’ encounter with God at the burning bush was the first step in God’s plan to bring his people, Israel, out of slavery. During Moses’ time of alienation from Egypt (Exod. 2:11–15), the angel of the Lord manifested himself to Moses on Mount Horeb (Sinai) from a bush that was on fire but not being consumed. From within the bush, God spoke to Moses and ordered him to lead the Israelites out from Egypt. God further explained that his name is “I am who I am” (3:1–14). This incident forms the backdrop for the Jews’ anger at Jesus in John 8:59: Jesus’ reference to himself as “I am” (8:58) was an allusion to the encounter at the burning bush and thus a claim to be God.

The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesus followers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christ embodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in human history.

Birth and childhood. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem during the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesus was probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’s death (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of a virginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governor Quirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place in Bethlehem (2:15). Both the census and the governorship at the time of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars. Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to either confirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must be determined on the basis of one’s view regarding the general reliability of the Gospel tradition.

On the eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keeping with the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus” (Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home of his parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel of Luke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth in strength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke also contains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).

Baptism, temptation, and start of ministry. After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke 3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring to him as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instant ministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into the wilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that the temptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Luke identify three specific temptations by the devil, though their order for the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine intervention after jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’s kingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation, quoting Scripture in response.

Matthew and Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum in Galilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13; Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirty years of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity or perhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of the Levites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning of Jesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples and the sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).

Galilean ministry. The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and around Galilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that the kingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ first teaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30); the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for his calling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection and suffering.

All the Gospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in his Galilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke 5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioning of the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers is recorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministry is the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke 6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, in particular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synoptics focus on healings and exorcisms.

During Jesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with his identity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority (Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family (3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner of Beelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesus told parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growing kingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humble beginnings (4:1–32).

The Synoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful. No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority or ability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized many demons (5:1–13), raised the dead (5:35–42), fed five thousand (6:30–44), and walked on water (6:48–49).

In the later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew and traveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are not written with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns to Galilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fear resolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee, where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ disciples with lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed the Pharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents (7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demanding a sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, who confessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus did provide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).

Jesus withdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician woman requested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans had long resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality that allotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere “crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,” Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-mute man in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’s confession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’ travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The city was the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.

Judean ministry. Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry as he resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually led to his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem into three phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27). The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of the journey. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, and the demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem (Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45; Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journey toward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvation and judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase of the journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are the main themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).

Social conflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposte interactions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel (Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomic feathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who had little value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16; Luke 18:15–17).

Passion week, death, and resurrection. Each of the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with the crowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark 11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Luke describes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during which Jesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).

In Jerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17). Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because the whole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “began looking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segment of Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’ authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions (12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation (12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s own destruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, Judas Iscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’ arrest (14:10–11).

At the Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a new covenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29; Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned the disciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark 14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and later he prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agony and submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42; Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial, crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15; Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18). Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission by making disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8) and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return (Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).

The second king of Israel (r. 1010970 BC), founder of a dynasty that continued with his son Solomon (r. 970–931 BC), who ruled all of Israel; subsequently the remaining “sons of David” ruled the southern kingdom, Judah, until 586 BC.

Human kingship is a late development in Israel, but a number of ancient texts anticipate the establishment of the institution (Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:14–20) and specifically the rise of a king from Judah (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:17). Thus, it is surprising that the first king of Israel is not from Judah, but from Benjamin. When the people ask Samuel for a king, he anoints Saul (1Sam. 8–12), who proves to be a tremendous disappointment. He forfeits the establishment of his dynasty when he shows a lack of confidence in God by rashly offering prebattle sacrifices (13:13–14). God then rejects Saul as king because he does not execute God’s full judgment against the Amalekites as he knows he should (15:23).

Eventually Saul’s moment of judgment comes. Saul’s final battle is against the Philistines, the major foreign force still inside the borders of the promised land. Both Saul and Jonathan meet their end on Mount Gilboa, and David sings songs that express his sadness over their deaths (1Sam. 31–2Sam. 1).

Even with Saul out of the way, David’s rise to kingship is not easy. He is immediately crowned king of Judah (2Sam. 2:1–7), but the northern tribes choose to follow Ish-Bosheth, the son of Saul. War erupts between the two kingdoms. Eventually, though, the powerful general Abner abandons his support of Saul’s son, sealing the end of that dynasty. Ish-Bosheth is killed by his own men, and soon David becomes king over all Israel (5:1–5).

David’s kingship leads to significant victories that, in essence, complete the conquest of Canaan by finally subduing all the internal enemies. His men take the city of Jerusalem from the Jebusites, and he makes it his capital (2Sam. 5:6–16). He also defeats the Philistines, who have been a thorn in the side of Israel for years (2Sam. 5:17–25; for other victories, see 8:1–14). In celebration, David brings the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2Sam. 6).

The David narrative reaches its apex when God enters into a covenant with him that establishes his dynasty (2Sam. 7; 1Chron. 17). After David dies, his son will succeed him, and indeed his dynasty lasts for many hundreds of years (see below).

David is a good king, but not a perfect king. A turning point in his reign comes in 2Sam. 11. Up to this point, David has been content with what God has given him. He does not grasp for anything that does not belong to him. However, when he sees the beautiful Bathsheba bathing, he sends messengers to bring her to his house, where the two have sexual intercourse and she becomes pregnant. In an attempt to conceal this sin of adultery, he orders the death of her husband, Uriah the Hittite. Thus, he adds the crime of murder to that of adultery.

David thinks that the sin is secret, but nothing is hidden from God, who sends his prophet Nathan to confront David (2Sam. 12; cf. Ps. 51). The difference between Saul and David is not that the latter is perfect but rather that David, as opposed to Saul, repents when he sins. Thus, God allows his reign to continue. Even so, David feels the consequences of his sin. First, the son that Bathsheba bears from her illicit union with David is struck with illness and dies. And ever afterward, David’s family life is troubled, with great impact on the political life of Israel. Son is pitted against son (Amnon and Absalom [2Sam. 13]), as well as son against father (Absalom and David [2Sam. 15–18]). Absalom temporarily deposes his father from the throne, but David eventually regains the kingship, though at the cost of the heartbreaking loss of his son.

Even at the very end, there is conflict within David’s house. When David has grown old, another son, Adonijah, attempts to take the throne, with support from powerful people such as Joab and Abiathar. At the instigation of Bathsheba and Nathan, however, David places the son of his choosing, Solomon, on the throne (1Kings 1). David then dies after a reign of forty-one years, seven in Hebron and the rest over all Israel (1Kings 2:10–12).

David’s greatest legacy is the dynasty that bears his name. Beginning with Solomon, however, his successors do not continue his spiritual legacy. Although a number of kings do some good, only Hezekiah (r. 727–698 BC) and Josiah (r. 639–609 BC) are given unqualified approval. Eventually, the Davidic rule comes to an end in Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians (586 BC). But God is not done with his redemptive purposes, and his promise to David is that he will have a ruler on the throne “forever” (2Sam. 7:16). The NT recognizes that Jesus Christ is the fulfillment of this promise. He is the greater son of David, the one who is the Christ or Messiah, the anointed king. Jesus is the one who reigns forever in heaven. The life and the rule of David foreshadow the messianic rule of Jesus Christ.

Deliverance provides relief or escape from a detrimental situation or the prospect of adverse circ*mstances. Deliverance may come from God or humans and may be from physical temporal distress or spiritual in nature.

The principal example of deliverance in the OT is the exodus, God’s deliverance of Israel from Egypt. The NT continues the exodus theme in that Jesus’ death and resurrection, the foundation for salvation, coincide with the celebration of Passover. This constitutes deliverance in that all humanity is in slavery to the power of sin and subject to the penalty of death. Jesus’ death and resurrection provide the possibility of deliverance, usually called “salvation,” from the power of sin and death (1Cor. 15:5157; Gal. 1:4; Col. 1:13; 1Thess. 1:10).

Throughout the Bible, God provides deliverers and is a deliverer (Judg. 3:15; 2Sam. 22:2; 2Kings 13:5; Ps. 40:17). The NT prefers the term “Savior,” applying it to God the Father and to Jesus Christ.

Israel shared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. This worldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon the primeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having four rims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rims were sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters. God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth and shaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:1213).

Israel’s promised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen. 13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing, fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orienting points for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise, “flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27). Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity and judgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationship with God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; this could ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits” people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).

For Israel, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen. 15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithful obedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen. 18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was the supreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev. 25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance” to give (1Sam. 26:19; 2Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). The Levites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did the other tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20; Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter and to occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3). Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when they accused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing with milk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however, no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance” (Josh. 13:1).

Egypt is one of the earliest ancient civilizations. The first development of writing took place simultaneously in both Egypt and ancient Sumer around 3000 BC.

Ancient Sumer and Egypt were river valley cultures. Sumer was located in Mesopotamia (southeast Iraq), Egypt in the Nile Valley (northeast Africa). The Nile Valley was well suited for long-term growth and cultural success for three reasons. First, the annual flooding of the Nile (July to October) brought sediment and nutrients from up river to the fields of the Nile Valley. The water also washed the salts out of the soil. These brought great fertility to the valley and allowed the same fields to be farmed year after year for millennia without exhausting the land. Second, the Nile provided a central highway for transporting people and goods across Egypt, thus facilitating internal trade and communication. Third, Egypt was surrounded by a buffer zone of desert regions to the east, west, and south, which hindered foreign invasion. Ancient Egyptians called the fertile land of the Nile Valley the “black land” and the desert regions the “red land.” They also divided the land into “upper” and “lower” Egypt. Upper Egypt (from the first cataract northward to Memphis) was in the higher southern elevations of the Nile River (the Nile flows from south to north). Lower Egypt was made up of the Nile Delta region. Only a pharaoh who controlled and unified both could take the epithet “king of upper and lower Egypt.”

Egypt had an ancient and long history, but the following summary will only address Egypt as it comes into contact with biblical history.

First Intermediate period (21342040 BC) and Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 BC). After the death of PepyII came economic collapse due to drought and falling tax revenues. These led to political collapse, and power was split among many competing factions. This time of instability is known as the First Intermediate period; it ended when the Eleventh Dynasty pharaoh MentuhotepII reunified Egypt and reestablished a strong central government. It is likely around the time of the end of the First Intermediate period (2134–2040 BC) and the beginning of the Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 BC) that Abraham visited Egypt and later Joseph, Jacob, and his family entered Egypt. The famous Beni Hasan tomb painting of this period shows a caravan of Semitic peoples moving into Egypt, wearing multicolored clothing. In this period the position of vizier (prime minister) grew to prominence. One vizier, Amenemhet, succeeded to the throne of Egypt. Joseph filled the role of vizier in the biblical account (Gen. 41:39–40). Also dating from this period are turquoise mines in the Sinai region that have the earliest known Semitic inscription. Written on the mine walls in Proto-Sinaitic, this inscription may be the earliest alphabetic script in existence.

Second Intermediate period (1640–1550 BC). At the end of the Middle Kingdom, Egypt again fell into a fractured political situation with the decline of the pharaoh’s power. A Semitic people, the Hyksos (Egyptian for “foreign rulers” or “shepherd kings”), invaded the Nile Delta region and established their capital at Avaris. The Seventeenth Dynasty continued to rule Upper Egypt in the south while the Hyksos were in power. Although the Israelites were servants of Pharaoh from the beginning (keeping his flocks), they were not enslaved until later. It may have been a Hyksos pharaoh or a New Kingdom pharaoh who enslaved them to hard labor.

New Kingdom (1550–1069 BC). The last king of the Seventeenth (Theban) Dynasty, Kamose, attacked the Hyksos, but it was his successor, Ahmose, who drove them out and reunified Egypt. Ahmose is considered the first pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty. It may have been Ahmose or one of his successors who enslaved the Hebrews. During the first half of the New Kingdom, Egypt was at the height of its power and wealth. During this period Egyptians began to call their king “Pharaoh,” meaning “great house.” The Eighteenth Dynasty pharaoh ThutmoseIII and his son AmenhotepII are good candidates for an early-date exodus (c. 1446 BC). A later king of the Eighteenth Dynasty, Akhenaten, moved the capital to Amarna and shifted his allegiance from Amun-Re, the sun god, to sole worship of the god Aton (sun-disk). For this reason, many identify him as the first monotheist. Akhenaten may have made this move in order to defund the temples and priestly orders that had grown very wealthy and powerful over time. His reforms did not last, and the worship of Amun-Re was restored by his successor, Tutankhamen. The Nineteenth Dynasty warrior RamessesII is the likely pharaoh of a late-date Exodus (c. 1250 BC).

Third Intermediate period (1069–664 BC). This period was a time of weak and divided government, with capitals in the north and the south. Pharaoh Siamun has been conjectured to be King Solomon’s father-in-law, who conquered Gezer and gave it to Solomon as a dowry (c. 960 BC; 1Kings 9:16). Later, Sheshonq (biblical Shishak), a Libyan pharaoh of the Twenty-second Dynasty, came to the throne and campaigned against Solomon’s son Rehoboam, plundering Jerusalem in the process (1Kings 14:25; 2Chron. 12:2; cf. 1Kings 11:40). The African Cush*te pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (760–664 BC) ruled the north for a little more than a century but failed to defend against the waves of Assyrian conquest in the seventh century BC.

Late Kingdom period (664–525 BC). The Twenty-sixth (Saite) Dynasty (ruling from the Delta city of Sais) reunified Egypt under native Egyptian control. Pharaoh NechoII tried to support a declining Assyria as a buffer against the Babylonian onslaught but was unsuccessful (c. 609 BC). However, in the process Necho killed King Josiah of Judah in battle at Megiddo and placed one of Josiah’s sons, Jehoiakim, as a vassal upon the throne of Judah (2Kings 23:29–35; cf. 2Chron. 35:20–36:8; Jer. 46:2). After the Babylonian destruction of Judah/Jerusalem (587/586 BC) and the murder of their Jewish governor, Gedaliah, a group of Jewish exiles fled to Egypt. This group forced the prophet Jeremiah to go with them to Egypt (Jer. 40:1–43:7). A small group of Jewish exiles eventually found their way to a tiny island in the upper Nile, Elephantine, where they established a temple and community; there they worked as mercenaries.

Persian period (525–332 BC). CambysesII, king of Persia and son of Cyrus the Great, conquered Egypt in 525 BC. His successor, DariusI, ruled Egypt benevolently and resumed the construction of temples and canals. However, Egypt revolted against Persian rule several times, ultimately winning independence in 404 BC with the help of Greek allies. The last native Egyptian pharaoh was NectaneboII, who ruled in 359–343 BC. However, this period of Egyptian independence was short-lived, with Persia reestablishing control in 343 BC.

Hellenistic-Roman period (332–30 BC; 30 BC and beyond). Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BC. After Alexander’s death, his general Ptolemy took control of Egypt and ruled as pharaoh. From Alexander’s conquest to the death of Cleopatra, Egyptian rulers were of Greek descent. After Cleopatra’s death (30 BC), Rome annexed Egypt into its empire and governed the country until the fall of the Roman Empire. A large contingent of Jews lived and prospered in the Delta city of Alexandria in this period.

The firstborn son of Isaac and Rebekah, the twin brother of Jacob, and the father of the Edomites (Gen. 25:25 26; 36). Unlike Jacob, Esau was red and hairy in appearance (hence his name [25:25]), a skillful hunter by trade, and loved by his father, Isaac.

Before the birth of the twins, Rebekah received a prophecy that the two sons would represent nations, and that the older, Esau, would serve the younger, Jacob (Gen. 25:23). This reversal of events was brought about through the trickery of Jacob and Rebekah. Jacob bargained for Esau’s birthright, which the famished Esau traded for food. Rebekah cleverly disguised her beloved son, Jacob, to feel and smell like Esau in order to fool her blind husband, which allowed Jacob to steal Esau’s blessing. Esau plotted to kill Jacob, who possessed his birthright and blessing.

Rebekah intervened to save Jacob by urging Isaac to send Jacob away to Paddan Aram to take a wife from her father’s home (Gen. 27:42–28:5). As a result, Jacob’s wife-to-be would not be a grief to his parents like Esau’s foreign wives, Judith and Basemath (26:34). Upon hearing of his parents’ disapproval, Esau added another foreign wife, Mahalath, apparently out of spite (28:8–9). Esau never exacted revenge on his brother, even though Jacob greatly feared this fate (32:3–21). Instead, the two brothers met peacefully following Jacob’s departure from Paddan Aram (33:4), and again in order to bury their father (35:29).

Genesis 36 describes Esau as the father of the Edomites, who inhabited the hill country of Seir in Edom (also Deut. 2:4–6). Even though Jacob and Esau resolved their differences, there was continued strife between the two nations that they represent, fulfilling the earlier prophecy. Edom also figures prominently within the prophetic corpus (see Obadiah; Mal. 1:2–4). Further, the relationship between Jacob and Esau and their father is used as a type in the NT (Rom. 9–11), and Esau is used to represent the godless (Heb. 12:16).

In the first chapter we see connections to Genesis, which tell us that we cannot read Exodus in isolation. For example, Exod. 1:1 closely parallels Gen. 46:8. The latter speaks of the Israelites going down into Egypt, and the former picks up on this theme, thus reminding us that Israel’s presence in Egypt was not an accident and that Exodus is a continuation of the story begun in Genesis. Likewise, the use of creation language in Exod. 1:7 (the Israelites were fruitful, multiplying, becoming numerous, filling the earth; compare to Gen. 1:21, 28; 8:17; 9:1) signals that Israel’s impending drama is somehow connected to creation. That point is made clearer in the chapters that follow. Perhaps most central is the crossing of the Red Sea. As in Gen. 1:9, where the dry land appears where once there was water, here the dry land (Exod. 14:21) appears to make a path through the sea.

There is, in fact, a fair amount of Exodus that plays on this theological theme of creation and the reversal of creation. In ancient Near Eastern conceptions of creation, water represented chaos. The gods’ role was to tame the chaos so that the earth could be inhabited. Separating the land from the primordial sea was an important part of that, and this is reflected in the biblical account in Gen. 1. The flood in Gen. 69 is a reversal of that creative act, where God allows the waters of chaos to come crashing down on his creation, thus making it uninhabitable again. Exodus continues this theme, but here creation is called upon to aid the Israelites in their escape, whereas it is used against the Egyptians. The ten plagues, for example, are declarations that Israel’s God controls the cosmos, whereas Egypt’s gods stand by helplessly. The plague of darkness in particular is a graphic reversal of what God had done in Genesis, the creation of light and the separation of light from darkness. Israel’s deliverance from Egypt is, in other words, another act of creation: the same God who brought order to cosmic chaos in Gen. 1 is now unleashing the forces of creation to save his people and punish their enemies. And whereas Pharaoh’s Egyptians are able to reproduce the first sign and the first two plagues, it is only Israel’s God who can end the plagues and restore order to chaos.

Israel has been delivered from Egypt for a purpose, and that purpose begins to become clear in the chapters that follow their departure. The newly created people of Israel are not delivered from Egypt so that they can be “free” from bondage. The key struggle in the opening chapters of Exodus, indeed, the whole reason for the ten plagues, is to determine to whom Israel belongs, whether to Pharaoh or to Yahweh, Israel’s God. The Hebrew word ’abad can mean both “serve” (in the sense of servitude) and “worship.” In a wonderful play on words, the question being asked in the opening chapters is “Whom will Israel ’abad, Pharaoh or Yahweh?” But Yahweh claims his people, not so that they can be liberated to go where they please, but rather so that they are free to move from serving/worshiping Pharaoh to serving/worshiping Yahweh on Mount Sinai.

Law. It is important to understand that the law was given to the Israelites after they had been redeemed from Egypt, not before. The law is a gift to those who have been saved. It is not something to be followed in order to become saved. Israel is, as we read in Exod. 4:22–23, God’s son. This is why Israel was delivered from Egypt, and this is why Israel was given the gift of the law.

The purpose of the law, therefore, was not to prove to God that his people were somehow worthy of his covenant with them. The law was given so that Israel would be molded into a new people, one whose hearts were wholly devoted to God and so could be the instrument through which not only Israel but also the nations themselves would be blessed (see Gen. 12:1–3). As Exod. 19:6 puts it, Israel is to become a “kingdom of priests”—that is, the “holy nation” that would perform the mediatorial role of blessing the nations. The law, therefore, was not a burden but a delight, a gift from God to a redeemed people.

Tabernacle. The section on the tabernacle begins in chapter 25 and extends to the end of the book, chapter 40. In between is an important episode, the rebellion involving the making of the golden calf. Just as the law represents much more than “rules to live by,” the tabernacle is more than just a building for sacrificing animals. The importance of the tabernacle can be seen by focusing on some key elements.

Chapters 25–31 provide the list of instructions for the tabernacle. For centuries, rabbis and biblical scholars have noticed a pattern in these chapters. Seven times the phrase is repeated “The Lord said to Moses,” and the seventh time is in 31:12 to introduce the topic of Sabbath observance. Just like the creation of the cosmos in Gen. 1, the tabernacle is a product of a six-stage creative act (“And the Lord said”) followed by rest. Some have suggested that the tabernacle is a microcosm of creation: for example, cherubim are worked into the curtains, so to look up is to look at the heavens; the lampstand is a sort of tree of life, as in the garden of Eden. To be in the tabernacle is to be in touch with creation as it was meant to be, in the garden apart from the chaos of life outside.

Chapters 35–40 relay how the instructions are carried out. This section begins with reference to the Sabbath (35:1–3), which is how the first section ends. In between, we find the episode of the golden calf (chaps. 32–34), which is about false worship. The Israelites nearly succeed in undoing all that God had planned in bringing his people out of Egypt. Still, through Moses’ intervention, God’s plan is not thwarted, and so chapter 35 does not miss a beat, picking up where chapter 31 leaves off, with the Sabbath. Some scholars see here a pattern of creation (chaps. 25–31), fall (chaps. 32–34), and redemption (chaps. 35–40).

The tabernacle is an important theological entity in Exodus: it is heaven on earth. It is a truly holy space where God communes with his holy (law-keeping) people. This is the ultimate purpose of the exodus: to create a people who embody God’s character and who worship him in purity. Then God would be with his people wherever they go (40:36–38).

Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.

Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.

In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:2829).

In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).

Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (2:8).

In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the Letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).

In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the Letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).

People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.

Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.

The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.

Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:617). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.

Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).

Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.

Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.

Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.

Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).

The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.

The first child born to a married couple. In the OT it most commonly refers to the first male child, upon whom special privileges were bestowed. The OT describes some of the privileges associated with being the firstborn son: he would receive a double portion of the inheritance (a privilege codified in the law in Deut. 21:17), the paternal blessing (Gen. 27; 48:1719), and other examples of favoritism (e.g., Gen. 43:33). The importance ascribed to the firstborn is also attested in the legislative requirement that the firstborn—people, animals, and produce—belong to Yahweh (Lev. 27:26; Deut. 15:19; and of people, note Num. 3:12–13), so stressing his primacy over Israel.

“Firstborn” language is also used figuratively in the OT. It is used of Israel as Yahweh’s firstborn in Exod. 4:22–23, wherein Pharaoh’s failure to release Yahweh’s firstborn results in the destruction of Egypt’s firstborn. God also declares the Davidic king to be his firstborn son in Ps. 89:27, highlighting the special favor that he would enjoy. “Firstborn” language can also be used figuratively to describe anything that receives a greater share, such as “the firstborn of Death” in Job 18:13 (NRSV) and “the firstborn of the poor” in Isa. 14:30 (NRSV).

Somewhat surprisingly, God does not adhere to the significance of primogeniture, frequently bestowing his favor on those who were not firstborn: Abel over Cain, Isaac over Ishmael, Jacob over Esau, Joseph and Judah over Reuben, Ephraim over Manasseh, Moses over Aaron, David over his brothers, and Solomon over Adonijah.

The NT presupposes an understanding of the significance of the firstborn. Jesus is specifically identified as Mary’s firstborn (Luke 2:7, 23). However, the description extends beyond mere notions of human primogeniture when Jesus is described as “firstborn over all creation” (Col. 1:15) and “firstborn from among the dead” (Col. 1:18; cf. Rev. 1:5). These expressions, in line with figurative use of “firstborn” language in the OT, express Jesus’ privileged place in both creation and the new creation.

The fifth judge described in the book of Judges (6:18:35). After Deborah’s victory over the Canaanites, Israel again falls into sin, so God turns Israel over to a new oppressor, the Midianites and their allies.

In the past, when Israel has repented as they do in Judg. 6:7, God has immediately brought them a judge to rescue them. This time, however, God first sends a prophet, who berates them for their continual apostasy (6:8–10). Still, the narrative next focuses on Gideon, whom God commissions to rescue Israel from Midian (7:14). Like Barak before him (4:8), however, Gideon does not immediately agree, but rather sets conditions for his participation, asking for a sign. Even after receiving the sign, he first of all acts only locally, tearing down his father’s idolatrous shrine and building a proper altar to Yahweh (6:26–27). Although the people want to punish Gideon out of fear of the Midianites, his father defends him and renames his son “Jerub-Baal,” which means “Let Baal contend with him” (6:32).

At this point, the conflict grows more serious as the Midianites and their allies amass against Israel. Even after the Spirit of the Lord comes upon Gideon, he still sets conditions on God asking for yet another sign, this time putting a fleece in front of God and asking that it be wet while the ground is dry. Even though God meets this condition, Gideon demands a second trial, and only after that is successful does he proceed.

The successful battle against the Midianites is best known for the prebattle dismissal of many of the Israelite troops. Many respond to Gideon’s call to arms. As God demands, Gideon insists that fearful troops leave, but even after ten thousand men leave, twenty-two thousand remain. Ultimately, God instructs Gideon to have the troops drink from the waters of the Wadi Harod. The three hundred who drink water by lapping it with their hands to their mouths are chosen, and with these Gideon wins a great victory. There is nothing special about these three hundred troops. God knows that Gideon has a propensity to self-glorification (“by my hand” [Judg. 6:36]), and God wants to ensure that Israel will not boast in its own strength and will know that it is God who has brought deliverance.

Although Gideon is hesitant and apparently distrustful in answering God’s call, events during and after the battle show his true nature. His humility is in evidence (cf. Judg. 6:15) when he refuses the Israelites’ request to be their king (though later he names one of his sons “Abimelek,” meaning “My father is king”), insisting that God alone will rule them (8:22–23). However, a request of his own becomes an occasion for Israel to plunge back into idolatry when he fashions an ephod from plundered enemy gold, which the Israelites then worship (8:24–27). Even so, the book of Hebrews (11:32) considers him an example of faith.

When God creates humans, he pronounces them “very good/beautiful” (Gen. 1:31). They are designed to be magnificent visual displays of God’s character (1:2627). Human sexuality originally is set in a context of overwhelming beauty. God’s first command is to reproduce and extend this paradise throughout the earth (1:28). Human sexuality is not simply a mechanism for reproduction. From the outset it has been about completion, without which there is loneliness (2:18).

Although the Bible does not define the distinctives of masculinity and femininity in any detail, it does defend that there are distinctions between the genders. Behaviors that confuse the genders are explicitly condemned (Deut. 22:5; 1Cor. 6:9; 11:4–16).

hom*osexual intercourse (Lev. 18:22; 20:13; Rom. 1:24–27; 1Cor. 6:9; 1Tim. 1:10) and intercourse with an animal (Exod. 22:19; Lev. 18:23; 20:15–16; Deut. 27:21) are violations of God’s created order.

Although damaged by sin, marriage continues to be the ultimate human relationship involving intimacy, privacy, and liberty. Marriage is defined by a covenant—a contract witnessed and enforceable, not just a promise made in private. The couple separate from their parents to become “one flesh” (Gen. 2:24).

Once the marriage contract is agreed upon, the couple are married. They cannot consummate the marriage until the economic commitments of the contract have been delivered (Matt. 1:18; 25:1–13). This is celebrated with a feast. Jesus uses this custom as an analogy for his departure and return (John 14:1–3).

Paul commands husbands to love their wives (Eph. 5:25–33; cf. Gen. 24:67; 29:20; 1Sam. 1:5; Eccles. 9:9; Song 8:6–7). Nowhere in the Bible is a wife commanded to love her husband, though older women should teach younger women to do so (Titus 2:3–4). Love is the husband’s responsibility. Love is a command that can be obeyed, not just a pleasurable feeling over which one has no control. The model of husbandly love is Jesus laying down his life for his people.

The ecstasy of making love is celebrated in the erotic Song of Songs, which holds out the hope of such marital delight even now. The axiom of marriage is a righteous jealousy (cf. Exod. 20:5; 34:14; Num. 5:14, 30; Prov. 6:34).

The first year of marriage is especially important and is protected by exemption from military service (Deut. 20:7; 24:5).

When a man dies without a male heir, his widow’s possession of that part of the family estate can result in her marrying a man from another family and so alienating that land. This can be resolved either by the injustice of eviction or by the device of levirate marriage. The nearest male relative of the deceased husband marries the widow, and their son then inherits the deceased husband’s name and title to the land (Deut. 25:5–10; cf. Gen. 38; Ruth).

Concubines are wives from poor families, slaves, or captives, and their marriages are protected (Exod. 21:7–9; Deut. 21:11–14).

Rape of a married woman constitutes adultery by the rapist, not the victim. Consensual sex with a married woman is adultery by both parties. Rape of a single woman is treated as fornication, with no blame attached to the woman. Her father has the option of letting her marry the man or receiving significant financial compensation (Exod. 22:16–17; Deut. 22:23–27). Her father has the right to take the money and refuse the marriage. To falsely accuse a woman of adultery is a crime (Deut. 22:13–21).

Prostitution is an extreme form of adultery or fornication and totally forbidden (Lev. 19:29; Deut. 23:17). Under the new covenant, this warning is heightened by the reality of the gift of the Holy Spirit transforming each believer into the temple of the Lord (1Cor. 6:15–20).

Originally, marriage between siblings is implied (Gen. 4:17, 26; 5:4). Abram married his half sister, Sarai (Gen. 20:12; cf. Gen. 11:29; Num. 26:59). The Mosaic covenant at Sinai bans marriage to blood relationships closer than first cousins and to in-laws (Lev. 18:6–30; cf. 2Sam. 13; 1Cor. 5:1).

Polygamy occurs soon after the fall (Gen. 4:19–24). It is never explicitly forbidden in the Bible, but it is managed by OT law so as to restrain further injustice and damage. It is always seen as less than satisfactory (cf. Gen. 29–30; 1Sam. 1:6; 2Sam. 13; 1Kings 1–2; 11). In the NT, monogamy is mandatory for those who would lead the church (1Tim. 3:2, 12; Titus 1:6).

The present abode of God and the final dwelling place of the righteous. The ancient Jews distinguished three different heavens. The first heaven was the atmospheric heavens of the clouds and where the birds fly (Gen. 1:20). The second heaven was the celestial heavens of the sun, the moon, and the stars. The third heaven was the present home of God and the angels. Paul builds on this understanding of a third heaven in 2Cor. 12:24, where he describes himself as a man who “was caught up to the third heaven” or “paradise,” where he “heard inexpressible things.” This idea of multiple heavens also shows itself in how the Jews normally spoke of “heavens” in the plural (Gen. 1:1), while most other ancient cultures spoke of “heaven” in the singular.

Although God is present everywhere, God is also present in a special way in “heaven.” During Jesus’ earthly ministry, the Father is sometimes described as speaking in “a voice from heaven” (Matt. 3:17). Similarly, Jesus instructs us to address our prayers to “Our Father in heaven” (6:9). Even the specific request in the Lord’s Prayer that “your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven” (6:10) reminds us that heaven is a place already under God’s full jurisdiction, where his will is presently being done completely and perfectly. Jesus also warns of the dangers of despising “one of these little ones,” because “their angels in heaven always see the face of my Father in heaven” (18:10). Jesus “came down from heaven” (John 6:51) for his earthly ministry, and after his death and resurrection, he ascended back “into heaven,” from where he “will come back in the same way you have seen him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11).

Given this strong connection between heaven and God’s presence, there is a natural connection in Scripture between heaven and the ultimate hope of believers. Believers are promised a reward in heaven (“Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven” [Matt. 5:12]), and even now believers can “store up for [themselves] treasures in heaven” (6:20). Even in this present life, “our citizenship is in heaven” (Phil. 3:20), and our hope at death is to “depart and be with Christ, which is better by far” (1:23). Since Christ is currently in heaven, deceased believers are already present with Christ in heaven awaiting his return, when “God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him” (1Thess. 4:14).

Holiness is an attribute of God and of all that is fit for association with him. God alone is intrinsically holy (Rev. 15:4). God the Father is holy (John 17:11), as is the Son (Acts 3:14), while “Holy” is the characteristic designation of God’s Spirit (Ps. 51:11; Matt. 1:18). God’s name is holy (Luke 1:49), as are his arm (Ps. 98:1), ways (Ps. 77:13), and words (Ps. 105:42).

With reference to God himself, holiness may indicate something like his uniqueness, and it is associated with attributes such as his glory (Isa. 6:3), righteousness (Isa. 5:16), and jealousy—that is, his proper concern for his reputation (Josh. 24:19).

God’s dwelling place is in heaven (Ps. 20:6), and “holy” functions in some contexts as a virtual equivalent for heavenly (11:4). God’s throne is holy (47:8), and the angels who surround it are “holy ones” (89:5; cf. Mark 8:38).

A corollary of God’s holiness is that he must be treated as holy (Lev. 22:32)—that is, honored (Lev. 10:3), worshiped (Ps. 96:9), and feared (Isa. 8:13).

While “holy” is sometimes said to mean “set apart,” this does not appear to be its core meaning, though it is an associated notion (Lev. 20:26; Heb. 7:26). Holiness, as applied to people and things, is a relational concept. They are (explicitly or implicitly) holy “to the Lord” (Exod. 28:36), never “from” something.

The symbolic representation of God’s heavenly palace, the tabernacle (Exod. 40:9), and later the temple (1Chron. 29:3), and everything associated with them, are holy and the means whereby God’s people in the OT may symbolically be brought near to God. For God to share his presence with anything or anyone else, these too must be holy (Lev. 11:4445; Heb. 12:14).

The OT system of worship involved the distinction between unclean and clean, and between common and holy, and the means of effecting a transition to a state of cleanness or holiness (Lev. 10:10). People, places, and items may be made holy by a process of consecration or sanctification, whether simply by God’s purifying presence (Exod. 3:5) or by ritual acts (Exod. 19:10; 29:36).

God’s faithful people are described as holy (Exod. 19:6; 1Pet. 2:9). In the OT, this is true of the whole people of God at one level, and of particular individuals at another. Thus, kings (Ps. 16:10), prophets (2Kings 4:9), and in particular priests (Lev. 21:7) are declared to be holy. While the OT witnesses to some tension between the collective holiness of Israel and the particular holiness of its designated leaders (Num. 16:3), the latter were intended to act as models and facilitators of Israel’s holiness.

At times simply indicating a wish (2Cor. 11:1), in the Bible the word “hope” most often designates a disposition of soul, the grounds for one’s hope, or the outcome for which one hopes. At its core, biblical hope is hope in God, rooted in God’s covenant faithfulness (Ps. 62:58; Jer. 14:8; 17:13; Rom. 4:18; 5:1–5). Hope trusts God in the present and lives even now on the strength of God’s future accomplishments (Gal. 5:5; Heb. 11:1).

In the NT, hope is closely associated with Christ and his saving work. Christians now live by hope in Christ (Eph. 1:12; 1Pet. 1:3; 3:15); indeed, he is “Christ Jesus our hope” (1Tim. 1:1), and his future appearing is “the blessed hope” (Titus 2:13). Thus, hope refers to eschatological glory (2Cor. 3:11–12; Eph. 1:18). It is “the hope of the resurrection” (Acts 23:6; cf. 24:15; 26:6–9), our transformation into Christ’s likeness (1John 3:1–3). That expectation stimulates various hopes for God’s plans to be realized in one’s own or others’ lives (1Cor. 9:10, 13; Phil. 2:19, 23; 2Tim. 2:25; 2John 12). So hope is named repeatedly as an essential Christian attribute (Rom. 12:12; 15:4, 13; 1Cor. 13:13).

Family. In the ancient world every culture had customs for the passing of wealth and possessions from one generation to the next. In ancient Israel special provisions were made for inheriting land upon the death of the father. The firstborn son received a double portion; the rest was divided equally among the remaining sons. If a man lacked sons, priority went to the following in order: daughters, brothers, father’s brothers, next of kin (Num. 27:111). The OT provides guidance for additional circ*mstances (Gen. 38:8–9; Num. 36:6; Lev. 25:23–24; Deut. 21:15–17; 25:5–10; Ruth 2:20; 3:9–13; 4:1–12), with an overriding concern for the stability of the family and the retention of the land within a tribe. Under Roman law during the NT period, an heir had legal standing even while the father was still alive; his status was based on birth or adoption rather than the father’s death.

Old Testament. Even more prominent than family inheritance is the assertion that God gave the land of Canaan to Abraham and his descendants as an inheritance (Gen. 12:7; 15:18–21; 17:8; Num. 34:1–29; Deut. 12:10). This inheritance is God’s gracious gift, not something that Israel earned by its righteousness (Deut. 9:4–7). Descriptions of the land (“flowing with milk and honey”) and its fertility portray this gift as a new Eden, where God will dwell with his people (Exod. 3:8, 17; Lev. 20:24; Num. 16:13–14; Deut. 11:9–12). In some texts the language of inheritance moves beyond the land of Canaan to an international scope. In Ps. 2:8 the anointed king recounts God saying to him, “Ask me, and I will make the nations your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession.” This expansion of inheritance from the land of Canaan to the ends of the earth prepares the way for a similar expansion in the NT (see Rom. 4:13).

God’s relationship with Israel is also described in terms of inheritance. On the one hand, Israel is described as God’s inheritance (Deut. 32:9; 1Sam. 10:1; 1Kings 8:51–53); on the other hand, God is Israel’s inheritance (Pss. 16:5; 73:26; Jer. 10:16; 51:19). This mutuality expresses the intimacy of God’s relationship with Israel.

New Testament. Inheritance language is taken up in the NT and expanded in a variety of ways. First and foremost, Jesus Christ is the “heir of all things,” the Son to whom the Father has given all authority in heaven and on earth (Matt. 28:18–20; Heb. 1:2–5). Through their union with Christ, believers share in Christ’s inheritance (Rom. 8:17), having been qualified by the Father to share in that inheritance (Col. 1:12). What believers inherit is described in various ways: the earth (Matt. 5:5), eternal life (Luke 10:25), the kingdom (1Cor. 6:9–10; James 2:5), salvation (Heb. 1:14), blessing (Heb. 12:17; 1Pet. 3:9). This inheritance was enacted by the death of Christ and sealed by his blood (Heb. 9:15–28). Believers experience the benefits of this inheritance through the Spirit now (Eph. 1:14, 18), but its fullness is reserved in heaven and awaits the consummation (1Pet. 1:4–6).

Along with Abraham and Jacob, Isaac is a central character in the narratives of Gen. 1235. Isaac is the offspring of Abraham and Sarah, the fulfillment of a promise from God of an heir for Abraham (15:4). The promise of offspring is one component in a set (protection and land being some of the others), the provisions of a covenant between God and the patriarchs (12:1–3; 17:1–8; 26:2–5). The name “Isaac” is associated with the verb for “laugh” (21:3–7), referring to Sarah’s reaction upon hearing the promise of a child coming well beyond her childbearing years (18:9–15). Sarah’s incredulity, and Abraham’s sympathy to it, may be witnessed by their attempt to enact fulfillment to the promise through the insemination of Hagar, Sarah’s slave (16:1–4, 16).

In the narratives of Gen. 12–35 Isaac is the least prominent of the patriarchs. The main event of his life is encapsulated in the incident known as the Akedah, the “binding” (22:1–19). Abraham demonstrates his loyalty to God by complying with a command to offer Isaac as a sacrifice on Mount Moriah. After an initial inquiry about the absence of a sacrificial beast, Isaac (apparently) passively follows Abraham’s directions in compliance with God’s will. A divine emissary, however, halts Abraham’s actions just prior to the slaying of Isaac.

The procurement of Isaac’s wife, Rebekah, by Abraham’s servant is found in Gen. 24:1–67. Like Abraham, Isaac describes his wife as a sister in order to deflect danger to his person (26:6–11; cf. 12:10–16; 20:1–18). Rebekah bears two sons to Isaac, Esau and Jacob (25:21–26). Through the instigation and cooperation of Rebekah, Jacob tricks Isaac into conferring a blessing upon him, one originally intended for Esau (27:1–30).

Jericho, “the city of palm trees” (Deut. 34:3; Judg. 3:13; 2Chron. 28:15), is located about four miles west of the Jordan River and about ten miles north of the Dead Sea. It is located about 850 feet below sea level on a narrow plain across from one of the major Jordan River crossings. Its location was crucial to protect this important east-west route. Immediately behind the city the land rises quickly into a mountainous region known as the Judean Wilderness.

Jericho is possibly the earliest continuously inhabited city in the world, with archaeological finds going back perhaps as early as 9000 BC. Jericho is most famous for being the first city defeated by the Israelites during the conquest under Joshua (Josh. 5:136:27).

(1)The eleventh son of Judah and the first by Jacob’s beloved wife, Rachel (Gen. 30:24; 35:24).

Joseph was Jacob’s favorite, and so Jacob “made an ornate robe for him” (37:3). While shepherding with his brothers, Joseph had a dream indicating that he would one day rise to prominence over them. This was too much for his brothers to bear, and so they decided, after some deliberation, to throw him into a cistern and, rather than kill him, sell him to passing Ishmaelite/Midianite merchants (37:2528).

Upon arriving in Egypt, Joseph was sold to Potiphar, an official of Pharaoh, and then thrown in jail after Potiphar’s wife falsely accused him of making sexual advances (chap. 39). While in jail, he accurately interpreted the dreams of Pharaoh’s cupbearer and baker (chap. 40). Two years later, he was called upon to interpret Pharaoh’s dreams (chap. 41). Joseph’s ability to interpret dreams plus his administrative skills saved Egypt from famine, which resulted in his elevation to being “in charge of the whole land of Egypt” (41:41).

It was the famine that brought Joseph’s family to Egypt to find food, which eventually led to their warm reunion, though not without some testing on Joseph’s part (chaps. 42–45). After Joseph made himself known to his brothers, they reconciled and sent for the elderly Jacob, who was awaiting news in Canaan. Thus, Jacob and his twelve sons lived in Egypt, and their descendants were eventually enslaved by a king “to whom Joseph meant nothing” (Exod. 1:8).

Joseph died in Egypt and was embalmed (Gen. 50:20–26). The exodus generation took his bones out of Egypt (Exod. 13:19), and he was later buried in Shechem (Josh. 24:32).

(2)The husband of Mary, mentioned only by name in Jesus’ birth stories in Matthew and Luke. According to Matt. 1:16, Joseph is a descendant of David, which establishes Jesus’ royal bloodline. Luke’s genealogy (3:23–38) downplays Jesus’ relationship to Joseph. In Matthew, Joseph is a recipient of several divine communications by means of dreams, announcing Mary’s conception (1:18–25) and commanding the flight to Egypt (2:13) and the return to Nazareth (2:19–23). In Luke, Joseph takes Mary to Bethlehem to give birth (2:4–7), presents Jesus in the temple for consecration (2:21–24), and brings Mary and Jesus to Jerusalem for the Passover feast when Jesus is twelve (2:41–52).

(3)A Jew from Arimathea, a secret follower of Jesus and member of the Sanhedrin who did not agree to put Jesus to death (Luke 23:50–51; John 19:38). He asked Pilate for Jesus’ body, wrapped it in linen, and placed it in his own tomb (Matt. 27:57–60). (4)Also known as Barsabbas or Justus, he was one of the two men proposed to take Judas Iscariot’s place among the disciples (Acts 1:23).

The concept of justice pervades the Bible, especially, though not exclusively, the OT. The biblical concept of justice is an embodiment of two contemporary concepts: righteousness and justice. The former designates compliance with the divine norm, while the latter emphasizes conformity to a societal standard of what is right and equitable. Focusing exclusively on the latter hinders the correct understanding of justice in the biblical sense.

The source of justice is God himself. It flows from his essential character as one who is both just and righteous, whose actions are flawless, perfect, upright, and just (Deut. 32:4; 1Sam. 12:7; 2Sam. 22:31; Job 37:23; Ps. 89:14). God is the righteous lawgiver, hence the one who establishes the norm for right conduct (Deut. 4:48; Ps. 19:7–9). He requires justice of all his creatures (cf. Gen. 9:5–6; Exod. 21:12, 28–29). God also judges righteously (Gen. 18:25; 1Kings 8:32; Ps. 9:4, 9; Jer. 9:24) and defends and vindicates the weak and oppressed (Deut. 10:18; Ps. 103:6). The responsibility of maintaining justice in the human community, however, he delegates to its leaders, such as civil magistrates or political officials, and requires them to execute this responsibility with integrity, equity, and impartiality (Deut. 1:16–17; 16:18–20; Ps. 82:2–4; Prov. 31:8–9; John 7:24; 1Pet. 2:13–14). God’s requirement of justice in the human community is not limited to its leaders only; it is incumbent upon everyone therein (Ps. 15:1–5; Mic. 6:8; Zech. 7:9; 8:17; Matt. 23:23).

A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gen. 10:10; 20:9; Num. 32:33; 2Kings 20:13; Esther 1:22). Some kingdoms were relatively small; others were concerted attempts to gain the whole world.

A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. Although kings only have as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dan.3).

God originally intended Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:1420). Israel was to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod. 19:6), but the people demanded a king (1Sam. 8:1–22). However, even when God granted their request, God remained King over the king and even retained ownership of the land (Lev. 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king was nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah were corrupted by authority and wealth and forgot God (1Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28; Matt. 14:6–11). But God made a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants would become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2Sam. 7:1–29; Pss. 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king would return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Matt. 21:1–9 pars.). Those who are likewise humble will inherit the land with him (Matt. 5:5).

Moses played a leadership role in the founding of Israel as a “kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod. 19:6). Indeed, the narrative of Exodus through Deuteronomy is the story of God using Moses to found the nation of Israel. It begins with an account of his birth (Exod. 2) and ends with an account of his death (Deut. 34). Moses’ influence and importance extend well beyond his lifetime, as later Scripture demonstrates.

Moses was born in a dangerous time, and according to Pharaoh’s decree, he should not have survived long after his birth. He was born to Amram and Jochebed (Exod. 6:20). Circumventing Pharaoh’s decree, Jochebed placed the infant Moses in a reed basket and floated him down the river. God guided the basket down the river and into the presence of none other than Pharaoh’s daughter (Exod. 2:56), who, at the urging of Moses’ sister, hired Jochebed to take care of the child.

The next major episode in the life of Moses concerns his defense of an Israelite worker who was being beaten by an Egyptian (Exod. 2:11–25). In the process of rescuing the Israelite, Moses killed the Egyptian. When it became clear that he was known to be the killer, he fled Egypt and ended up in Midian, where he became a member of the family of a Midianite priest-chief, Jethro, by marrying his daughter Zipporah.

Although Moses was not looking for a way back into Egypt, God had different plans. One day, while Moses was tending his sheep, God appeared to him in the form of a burning bush and commissioned him to go back to Egypt and lead his people to freedom. Moses expressed reluctance, and so God grudgingly enlisted his older brother, Aaron, to accompany him as his spokesperson.

Upon Moses’ return to Egypt, Pharaoh stubbornly refused to allow the Israelites to leave Egypt. God directed Moses to announce a series of plagues that ultimately induced Pharaoh to allow the Israelites to depart. After they left, Pharaoh had a change of mind and cornered them on the shores of the Red Sea (Sea of Reeds). It was at the Red Sea that God demonstrated his great power by splitting the sea and allowing the Israelites to escape before closing it again in judgment on the Egyptians. Moses signaled the presence of God by lifting his rod high in the air (Exod. 14:16). This event was long remembered as the defining moment when God released Israel from Egyptian slavery (Pss. 77; 114), and it even became the paradigm for future divine rescues (Isa. 40:3–5; Hos. 2:14–15).

After the crossing of the Red Sea, Moses led Israel back to Mount Sinai, the location of his divine commissioning. At this time, Moses went up the mountain as a prophetic mediator for the people (Deut. 18:16). He received the Ten Commandments, the rest of the law, and instructions to build the tabernacle (Exod. 19–24). All these were part of a new covenantal arrangement that today we refer to as the Mosaic or Sinaitic covenant.

However, as Moses came down the mountain with the law, he saw that the people, who had grown tired of waiting, were worshiping a false god that they had created in the form of a golden calf (Exod. 32). With the aid of the Levites, who that day assured their role as Israel’s priestly helpers, he brought God’s judgment against the offenders and also interceded in prayer with God to prevent the total destruction of Israel.

Thus began Israel’s long story of rebellion against God. God was particularly upset with the lack of confidence that the Israelites had shown when the spies from the twelve tribes gave their report (Num. 13). They did not believe that God could handle the fearsome warriors who lived in the land, and so God doomed them to forty years of wandering in the wilderness, enough time for the first generation to die. Not even Moses escaped this fate, since he had shown anger against God and attributed a miracle to his own power and not to God when he struck a rock in order to get water (Num. 20:1–13).

Thus, Moses was not permitted to enter the land of promise, though he had led the Israelites to the very brink of entry on the plains of Moab. There he gave his last sermon, which we know as the book of Deuteronomy. The purpose of his sermon was to tell the second generation of Israelites who were going to enter the land that they must obey God’s law or suffer the consequences. The form of the sermon was that of a covenant renewal, and so Israel on this occasion reaffirmed its loyalty to God.

After this, Moses went up on Mount Nebo, from which he could see the promised land, and died. Deuteronomy concludes with the following statements: “Since then, no prophet has risen in Israel like Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face.... For no one has ever shown the mighty power or performed the awesome deeds that Moses did in the sight of all Israel” (Deut. 34:10, 12).

The NT honors Moses as God’s servant but also makes the point that Jesus is one who far surpasses Moses as a mediator between God and people (Acts 3:17–26; Heb. 3).

The date of Moses is a matter of controversy because the biblical text does not name the pharaohs of the story. Many date him to the thirteenth century BC and associate him with RamessesII, but others take 1Kings 6:1 at face value and date him to the end of the fifteenth century BC, perhaps during the reign of ThutmoseIII.

The eighth descendant listed in the line of Seth and the grandson of Methuselah, Noah was used by God to preserve the human race through the flood. His name means “rest,” chosen because his father, Lamech, believed that God would use his son to bring rest from the toil of life resulting from the fall (Gen. 5:29). Enoch was his great-grandfather, and like him, Noah is described as one who “walked faithfully with God” (Gen. 6:9; cf. 5:22, 24). He was the father of Shem, Ham, and Japheth.

Noah is mentioned two other times in the OT. God cites his promise that the “waters of Noah” never again would destroy the earth to affirm his covenant faithfulness to Israel (Isa. 54:9), and in another text groups Noah together with Job and Daniel as those who could deliver themselves by their righteousness, but not disobedient Israel (Ezek. 14:14, 20). In the NT, Jesus cites the conditions in Noah’s day as being representative of conditions at the time of his coming (Matt. 24:3738; Luke 17:26–27). Peter mentions Noah twice, once to refer to the spirits of those who perished in the flood (1Pet. 3:20) and once to use Noah as an example of God’s ability to deliver his people (2Pet. 2:5). Hebrews 11:7 lists Noah as a hero of faith.

The words “sacrifice” and “offering” often are used interchangeably, but “offering” refers to a gift more generally, while “sacrifice” indicates a gift consecrated for a divine being. Sacrifices were offered to honor God, thanking him for his goodness. More important, they enabled persons to be made right with God by atoning for their sins. Whereas sin upset the fellowship God desired to have with people and kindled his wrath, sacrifice restored the relationship.

Leviticus introduced five main sacrifices: the ’olah (1:1 17; 6:8–18), the minkhah (2:1–16; 6:14–23), the shelamim (3:1–17; 7:11–36), the khatta’t (4:1–5:13), and the ’asham (5:14–6:7). Most of these focused on uncleanness or sin. The worshiper who brought such an offering was not allowed to eat any of it, as it was wholly given to God. Even when priests were allowed to eat part of a sacrifice, their portion was “waved” before God, indicating that it belonged to him.

1. The ’olah, or burnt offering, is the basic OT sacrifice connected with atonement for sin (Lev. 1:4). When rightly offered, it was accepted as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.” The worshiper brought a male animal (young bull, sheep, goat, dove, or young pigeon) without blemish, laid a hand upon it, and then killed it. After the priest sprinkled some of the blood on the altar, the rest was burned up.

2. The minkhah is simply a gift or offering. The Hebrew word is often used for a present given to another person or tribute to a ruler. When used of sacrifice, it is usually rendered as “grain offering” or “meal offering.” A minkhah can, on occasion, include flesh or fat (Gen. 4:4; Judg. 6:18–21). Considered “an aroma pleasing to the Lord,” it consisted of unground grain or fine flour mixed with oil and incense and was presented either cooked or uncooked. Part of the offering was burned as a “memorial portion,” the rest being given to the priests (Lev. 2:1–3). It usually was accompanied by a drink offering—wine poured out on the altar. Grain offerings frequently complemented burnt offerings or fellowship offerings. The showbread may have been considered a grain offering.

3. The shelamim (NIV: “fellowship offering”) has traditionally been called the “peace offering,” as the term is related to shalom. This offering most likely indicated that the worshiper was at peace with God and others; all the worshiper’s relationships were whole. Classified into three types, it could be used to express thanksgiving, to signify the fulfillment of a vow, or simply to denote one’s desire to bring an offering to God out of free will. Only those who made a vow were required to offer a shelamim; the other forms were wholly optional. The worshiper brought a male or female animal (ox, sheep, or goat) without blemish, laid a hand on its head, and slaughtered it. The priest sprinkled its blood on the sides of the altar and burned the fat surrounding the major organs. It is described as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.”

This offering significantly recognized the covenant relationship existing between those who shared in it. God received the fatty portions, the officiating priest received the right thigh, the other priests the breast, and the remainder was shared among members of a family, clan, tribe, or some other group.

4. The khatta’t, or sin offering, atoned for the sin of an individual or of the nation and cleansed the sacred items in the tabernacle that had been corrupted by sin. Since a sin offering could purify ceremonial as well as moral uncleanness, people who were unclean due to childbirth, skin diseases, bodily discharges, and so forth also brought them (Lev. 12–15).

5. The ’asham, or guilt offering, provided compensation for sins. A ram without blemish was sacrificed, its blood was sprinkled on the altar, and its fatty portions, kidneys, and liver were burned. The rest was given to the priest. In addition, the value of what was misappropriated plus one-fifth of its value was given to the person wronged or to the priests.

Christians quickly came to understand Christ’s death as the final sacrifice that completed the OT system. Various NT authors consider the nature of Christ’s death and metaphorically relate it to OT sacrifices, but the writer of Hebrews develops this in the most detail. According to Hebrews, the sacrificial system was merely the shadow that pointed to Jesus. Although the blood of animals could not adequately deal with sins, Jesus’ sacrifice could (Heb. 10:1–10). Jesus is regularly identified as the sacrificial lamb whose blood purifies humanity from sin (John 1:29, 36; Rom. 8:3; 1Cor. 5:7; Eph. 5:2; 1Pet. 1:19; 1John 1:7; Rev. 5:6, 12; 7:14; 12:11; 13:8). His sacrifice is considered a propitiation that turns away God’s wrath (Rom. 3:25; 1John 2:2).

The Israelites gathered regularly to celebrate their relationship with God. Such festivals were marked by communal meals, music, singing, dancing, and sacrifices. They celebrated, conscious that God had graciously brought them into a relationship with him. Within this covenant he had committed himself to act on their behalf both in regular ways, such as the harvest, and in exceptional ways, such as deliverance from Egypt. At the festivals, Israel celebrated God’s work in its past, present, and future and reaffirmed its relationship with this covenant God.

We know of Israel’s festivals from several calendars in the Mosaic legislation (Exod. 23:1417; 34:18–23; Lev. 23; Num. 28–29; Deut. 16:1–17), calendars further clarified by the prophets (e.g., Ezek. 45:18–25; Zech. 14), and narrative material (e.g., 2Kings 23:21–23).

Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread. Israel’s religious calendar began with Passover, the day set aside to commemorate deliverance from Egypt. Occurring in spring, this single day was joined with a weeklong celebration known as the Festival of Unleavened Bread, during which all males were required to make a pilgrimage to the sanctuary and offer the firstfruits of the barley harvest (Lev. 23:9–14). Israel observed Passover with rituals that reactualized the night God’s destroyer spared the Israelites in Egypt. A lamb was killed, and its blood was put on the doorposts of the homes and on the bronze altar in the sanctuary. The lamb was roasted and served with unleavened bread and bitter herbs while those partaking—dressed in their traveling clothes—listened to the retelling of the exodus story. No yeast was to be found anywhere among them, no work was to be done on the first and last days of the festival, and offerings were to be brought to the sanctuary (Num. 9:1–5; Josh. 5:10–11; 2Kings 23:21–23; 2Chron. 30; 35:1–19).

Early Christians associated Jesus’ death with that of the Passover (Paschal) lamb (1Cor. 5:7–8), encouraged by Jesus’ comments at the Last Supper (described by the Synoptic Gospels as a Passover meal [e.g., Matt. 26:17–30]). Perhaps Jesus meant to emphasize that just as Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread reminded God’s people of his deliverance and provision, his followers would find true freedom and full provision in him.

The Festival of Weeks. Also known as the Festival of Harvest, the Day of Firstfruits, or Pentecost (because it occurred fifty days after Passover), the Festival of Weeks took place on the sixth day of the third month (corresponding to our May or June). This marked another occasion when all Jewish men were required to come to the sanctuary. They were to bring an offering of the firstfruits of the wheat harvest, abstain from work, and devote themselves to rejoicing in God’s goodness.

Early in the NT period, if not before, this festival also became associated with the giving of the law on Mount Sinai. The Jews who assembled in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost as described in Acts 2 came to celebrate not only God’s provision but also the revelation of his nature and will. Significantly, God chose this day to send the Holy Spirit, the One who would produce a harvest of believers and reveal God more fully to the world.

The Festival of Tabernacles. So important was the Festival of Tabernacles (also known as the Festival of Ingathering or the Festival of Booths) that Israel sometimes referred to it as “the festival of the Lord” (Judg. 21:19) or simply “the festival” (cf. 1Kings 8:65). Held from the fifteenth to the twenty-first of the seventh month (September–October), this was the third of the three pilgrimage festivals. For that week, Israel lived in booths to remind them of their ancestors’ time in the wilderness. They also celebrated the fruit harvest. They were to “take the fruit of majestic trees, branches of palm trees, boughs of leafy trees, and willows of the brook; and you shall rejoice” before God for seven days (Lev. 23:40 NRSV). Avoiding all work on the first and last days of the festival, they were to mark the week with sacrifices, celebration, and joy. Also, every seventh year the law was to be read at this festival (Deut. 31:10–11).

John 7 records Jesus’ secretive departure to Jerusalem for the Festival of Tabernacles, where he spent several days teaching in the temple courts. It was on the last and greatest day of the festival when Jesus invited those thirsty to come to him and drink.

The Festival of Trumpets. Occurring on the first day of the seventh month (September–October), this feast marked the beginning of the civil and agricultural year for the Jews; it was also referred to as Rosh Hashanah (lit., “head/beginning of the year”). Observed as a Sabbath with sacrifices and trumpet blasts, this day was intended for rest and to begin preparations for the coming Day of Atonement. The Mishnah makes this connection more explicit by identifying the Festival of Trumpets as the day when “all that come into the world pass before [God] like legions of soldiers” or flocks of sheep to be judged (m.Ros.HaSh. 1:2).

The Day of Atonement. Some festivals, like Passover, looked back to what God had done or was doing for his people; other festivals, like Trumpets and the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), focused on the relationship itself. The latter was marked by repentance and rituals designed to remove the nation’s sins and restore fellowship with God. Coming ten days after the Festival of Trumpets, this was a solemn occasion during which the Israelites abstained from eating, drinking, and other activities. This was the only prescribed annual fast in the Jewish calendar, though other fasts were added in the fourth, fifth, seventh, and tenth months to mourn the Babylonian exile (Zech. 7:3, 5; 8:19).

In Leviticus, God clarified the purpose of this day: “On this day atonement will be made for you, to cleanse you. Then, before the Lord, you will be clean from all your sins” (16:30). Not only would the people be purified but so also would the sanctuary, so that God could continue to meet his people there. Sacrifices were offered for both priest and people, and the blood was taken into the most holy place. Only on Yom Kippur could this room be entered, and only by the high priest, who sprinkled blood on the cover of the ark of the covenant. Leaving that room, he also sprinkled blood in the holy place (16:14–17) and then on the bronze altar in the courtyard.

Yom Kippur was marked by another ritual that symbolized the removal of Israel’s sins, this one involving two goats. One goat, chosen by lot, was offered as a sacrifice to God. The high priest placed his hands on the other goat and transferred to it the sins of the nation. He then released the goat into the wilderness, for “the goat will carry on itself all their sins to a remote place” (Lev. 16:22).

The book of Hebrews uses the symbols of Yom Kippur to describe Jesus’ death. As the high priest entered the most holy place, so Jesus entered God’s presence, carrying not the blood of bull and goat but his own. His once-for-all death at the “culmination of the ages” (Heb. 9:26) not only allows him to remain in God’s presence (10:12) but also gives us access to God’s presence as well (10:19–22).

Sabbath Year. Every seven years, the Israelites were to observe a “Sabbath of the land” (Lev. 25:6 ESV), a time for the land to rest. They could not sow fields or prune vineyards, but they could eat what grew of itself (25:1–7). Deuteronomy 15:1–11 speaks of all debts being canceled (some would say deferred) every seventh year, presumably the same year the land was to lie fallow. When Israel was gathered at the Festival of Tabernacles during this Sabbath Year, the law of Moses was to be read aloud. The Chronicler described the seventy years of Babylonian exile as “sabbaths” for the land, perhaps alluding to the neglect of the Sabbath Year (2Chron. 36:21; cf. Lev. 26:43). Those returning from exile expressed their intent to keep this provision (Neh. 10:31), and it appears to have been observed in the intertestamental period (see 1Macc. 6:48–53; Josephus, Ant. 14.202–10).

This year seems intended to maintain the fertility of the land and to allow Israel’s economy to “reset,” equalizing wealth and limiting poverty. Observing such a provision took great faith and firm allegiance, for they had to trust God for daily bread and put obedience above profit. Rereading the law at the Festival of Tabernacles reminded the Israelites of God’s gracious covenant and their required response.

Jubilee. God instructed Israel to count off seven “sevens” of years and in the fiftieth year, beginning on the Day of Atonement, to sound a trumpet marking the Jubilee Year. As in the Sabbath Year, there was to be no sowing and reaping. Further, the land was released from its current owners and returned to those families to whom it originally belonged. Individual Israelites who had become indentured through economic distress were to be freed. The assumption underlying the Jubilee Year was that everything belonged to God. He owned the land and its occupants; the Israelites were only tenants and stewards (Lev. 25:23, 55). As their covenant Lord, he would provide for their needs even during back-to-back Sabbath Years (Lev. 25:21). The year began on the Day of Atonement, perhaps to emphasize that the best response to God’s redemptive mercy is faith in his provision and mercy to others. Although the Jubilee Year is commanded in the Mosaic law and spoken about by the prophets (Isa. 61:1–2; Ezek. 46:17), rabbis, and Jesus (Luke 4:18–19), Scripture is silent on how or if Israel observed this year.

New Moon. The beginning of each month was marked with the sounding of trumpets, rejoicing, and sacrifices (Num. 10:10; 28:11–15). There is some indication that work was to be suspended on this day, as on the Sabbath (Amos 8:5), and that people gathered for a meal (1Sam. 20:5, 18, 24, 27). By faithfully observing this day, Israel was in a position to properly observe the remaining days, set up, as they were, on the lunar calendar. Paul learned of some in Colossae who were giving undue attention to New Moon celebrations (Col. 2:16).

Purim. Beyond the festivals commanded in the law of Moses, the Jews added two more to their sacred calendar, one during the postexilic period and one between the Testaments. Both commemorated God’s deliverance of his people from their enemies. A wave of anti-Semitic persecution swept over the Jews living in Persia during the reign of Xerxes (486–465 BC). God delivered his people through Esther, and the Jews celebrated this deliverance with the festival of Purim. Their enemies determined when to attack by casting lots, so the Jews called this festival “Purim,” meaning “lots.” It was celebrated on the fourteenth and fifteenth days of the twelfth month (February–March) with “feasting and joy and giving presents of food to one another and gifts to the poor” (Esther 9:22).

Festival of Dedication. During the inter-testamental period, the Jews came under great persecution from the Seleucids, who outlawed the practice of Judaism and desecrated the Jerusalem temple. After recapturing the temple, the Jews began the process of purification. On the twenty-fifth day of their ninth month, in the year 164 BC, the Jews rose at dawn and offered a lawful sacrifice on the new altar of burnt offering which they had made. The altar was dedicated, to the sound of hymns, zithers, lyres and cymbals, at the same time of year and on the same day on which the gentiles had originally profaned it. The whole people fell prostrate in adoration and then praised Heaven who had granted them success. For eight days they celebrated the dedication of the altar, joyfully offering burnt offerings, communion and thanksgiving sacrifices.... Judas [Maccabees], with his brothers and the whole assembly of Israel, made it a law that the days of the dedication of the altar should be celebrated yearly at the proper season, for eight days beginning on the twenty-fifth of the month of Chislev [December], with rejoicing and gladness. (1Macc. 4:52–56, 59 NJB)

This festival is also called “Hanukkah” (from the Hebrew word for “dedicate”) or the Festival of Lights, to recall the lighting of the lamps in the temple. The rabbis told how these lamps were lit from a small quantity of oil that miraculously lasted eight days until more could be consecrated. John 10:22–39 describes events from Jesus’ life that took place at the Festival of Dedication.

From an Egyptian term meaning “great house,” “Pharaoh” refers to Egypt’s supreme leader. The Pentateuch refers to the pharaohs by title only. (The omission of the personal name of the pharaoh may reflect the Egyptian practice of not naming their enemies.)

Beyond the Pentateuch, six other pharaohs are mentioned, some by name. (1)Solomon married the daughter of a pharaoh who led him to betray God (1Kings 3:1). (2)Jeroboam rebelled against Solomon and received sanctuary from Pharaoh Shishak, who later raided Judah under Rehoboam (1Kings 11:18, 40). (3)Hoshea, the last king of the northern kingdom, sought help from Pharaoh So (Osorkon), bringing on him the wrath of King Shalmaneser of Assyria (2Kings 17:4). (4)The Assyrian king Sennacherib sent an envoy to Jerusalem who chided Hezekiah for depending on an unnamed and unreliable pharaoh (2Kings 18:21; Isa. 36:6). (5)Pharaoh Necho meddled in the affairs of Judah when he killed Josiah and deposed his son Jehoahaz, replacing him with Jehoiakim (2Kings 23:2935). (6)Pharaoh Hophra was the Egyptian leader upon whom Zedekiah vainly depended against the Babylonians (Jer. 44:30).

In comparing modern society to that of biblical times, it is important to acknowledge what is distinctive about prisons in many modern societies. Prisons serve multiple functions, including imposing incarceration as punishment for crimes committed, segregating dangerous criminals from the larger population, deterring crime by imposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders so that they can eventually return to society. In many cases where modern law imposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblical law imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment (beatings), and capital punishment (death). In addition, many of the biblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modern society would be considered political rather than criminal incarceration.

The story of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison. Joseph was falsely put in prison for the crime of molesting his master’s wife (Gen. 39:1920), while his companions were imprisoned for the otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king (40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences were not of a predetermined duration, and release depended on the goodwill of the king (Gen. 40:13), a situation in which Paul also found himself hundreds of years later during Roman times (Acts 24:27). When Joseph imprisoned his brothers, it was on a presumption of guilt for the crime of espionage (Gen. 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certain prisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly (Acts 25:27; see also 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed for failure to pay a debt (Matt. 18:30). Joseph kept Simeon in prison as a guarantee that his brothers would fulfill a prior agreement (Gen. 42:19, 24). In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could also be confined in houses (Jer. 37:15; Acts 28:16) and pits (Zech. 9:11).

In both Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’s salvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms, as in Ps. 146:7: “The Lord sets prisoners free” (see also Pss. 68:6; 107:10; 142:7). In Acts 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinely sent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison and identified himself as a prisoner of Christ (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10; 2Tim. 1:8; Philem. 1). Some texts refer in mythological terms to a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1Pet. 3:19; Rev. 20:7).

A technical term for “promise” does not appear in the OT, but its concept is present throughout Scripture. God unfolds the history of redemption by employing the idea of promises. The writers of the NT repeatedly assert that Jesus Christ has fulfilled God’s promises in the OT (e.g., Luke 24:4448; 1Cor. 15:3–8).

Most remarkable is the promise that God made to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Gen. 12:1–3; 13:14–17; 17:4–8; 22:17–18; 26:1–5; 28:13–15). God called Abraham in order to give him three specific blessings: the land, descendants, and the channel of blessing among the nations. As a sign of his promise, God made a covenant of circumcision with Abraham and his descendants (17:10–14). With Isaac (26:1–5) and Jacob (28:13–15), God repeatedly reconfirmed the promise made to Abraham. At the time of the exodus and later the settlement in Canaan, God’s promise to Abraham was partially fulfilled by multiplying his descendants into millions and by giving them the promised land.

The central message of the NT is that God’s promises in the OT are fulfilled with the coming of Jesus Christ. Matthew’s numerous citation formulas are evidence of this theme. In Luke 4:16–21 Jesus pronounces the fulfillment of Isaiah’s promise (about the Messiah’s ministry [Isa. 61:1–3]) in his own life. The book of Acts specifically states that Jesus’ suffering and resurrection and the coming of the Holy Spirit are the fulfillment of the OT promises (2:29–31; 13:32–34). Jesus’ identity both as the descendant of David (Acts 13:23) and as the prophet like Moses (Acts 3:21–26; cf. Deut. 18:15–18) is also regarded as the fulfillment of the OT.

Paul’s view of God’s promises is summarized in this statement: “For no matter how many promises God has made, they are ‘Yes’ in Christ” (2Cor. 1:20). According to Rom. 1:2–3, Paul regards the gospel as the message that God “promised beforehand through his prophets in the Holy Scriptures regarding his Son.” In Rom. 4 Abraham’s faith is described in terms of his trust in God’s promises, which leads to his righteousness. He is presented as our model of faith in God’s promises. The famous phrase “according to the Scriptures” in 1Cor. 15:3–4 is, in a sense, understood by Paul as the fulfillment of God’s promises regarding Christ’s death and resurrection.

In the NT, God makes new promises based on the work of Christ, including the final resurrection and the second coming of Christ (John 5:29; 11:25–26; 1Cor. 15:48–57; 2Cor. 4:14; 1Thess. 4:13–18). Furthermore, the message of the gospel is presented as multiple promises, including eternal life, the fullness of life in Christ, the forgiveness of sins, the indwelling of the Holy Spirit, the peace of God, the knowledge of God, and the joy of God (Matt. 28:18–20; John 3:16; 10:10; 14:16, 27; 16:20–24; 17:25–26; Phil. 4:4–9; 1John 1:9).

A prophet is a messenger of God, a person to whom God entrusts his message to an individual or to a nation. Indeed, the last book in the OT is named “Malachi,” which means “my messenger.” Isaiah heard God ask, “Whom shall I send?” and he cried out, “Send me!” (Isa. 6:8). A good template for understanding the phenomenon is Moses and Aaron. Moses was to tell Aaron what to say, and Aaron would say it. “Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘See, I have made you like God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron will be your prophet’” (Exod. 7:1).

In the NT period there were a number of prophets. John the Baptist could point to Jesus and proclaim him to be the Lamb of God, who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29). Agabus the prophet predicted a famine and, later, Paul’s arrest (Acts 11:28; 21:1011).

Paul lists “gifts of the Spirit” (1Cor. 12:4–11), including prophecy and various phenomena reminiscent of the OT prophets’ ecstatic state. Paul warns the Corinthians not to overdo this sort of thing and so to be mature (1Cor. 14:19–20). Near the end of his life, in one of his last letters, he speaks of prophecy as normative in the church, particularly in establishing an authoritative body of elders to rule and especially to preach the gospel (1Tim. 1:18; 4:14). Peter draws a connection between the ministry of the OT prophets and the proclamation of the gospel of Jesus Christ (1Pet. 1:10–12). Evangelism seems to be the normative mode for prophecy today: forthtelling by calling people to turn from their sins to Jesus, and foretelling by speaking of his return and the final judgment.

Thus, all Christians hold the office of prophet, even if they never participate in the ecstatic state experienced by the Corinthians. The greatness of a prophet is in how clearly the prophet points to Jesus. John the Baptist was the greatest of the OT prophets by that measure, but any Christian on this side of the cross and resurrection can proclaim the gospel even more clearly. Thus, the prophetic ministry of any Christian is greater than John’s (Matt. 11:11).

Five prophetesses are mentioned in the OT: Miriam (Exod. 15:20), Deborah (Judg. 4–5), Huldah (2Kings 22:14–20; 2Chron. 34:22–28), Isaiah’s wife (Isa. 8:3), and Noadiah (Neh. 6:14).

Similarly in the NT, Peter recognizes God’s promise through Joel being fulfilled in the gift of prophetic speech to women as well as men at Pentecost (Acts 2:18); and Paul, acknowledging that women prophesy publicly in the congregation, is concerned only with the manner of their doing so (1Cor. 11:5). The prophetess Anna proclaims the baby Jesus as the Messiah (Luke 2:36–38), Luke reports that the four unmarried daughters of Philip the evangelist also prophesy (Acts 21:8–9). The only false prophetess in the NT is the apocalyptic figure of Jezebel in Rev. 2:20.

(1)A woman associated with the conquest whose history is recounted in Josh. 2. Two Israelite soldiers entered Jericho and headed straight for the nearest brothel (Josh. 2:1). There, they “lay down” (the literal meaning of shakab, which the NIV translates as “stayed there”) with Rahab. They were on a reconnaissance mission under Joshua’s command, as a precursor to invasion. The king of Jericho demanded that Rahab hand over the spies to him. She lied and sent the pursuers away on a false path, enabling the Israelites to escape. Her justification for this action was that she, and all of Canaan, knew that Israel’s God was with Israel and surely would destroy Jericho. She asked the spies to spare her family. This they promised to do if she would mark her window with a red cord, which she did.

These acts identified Rahab with Israel and Israel’s God, making her, as it were, a defacto Israelite. Thus, her works justified her to Joshua and saved her family (James 2:25). Although the citizens of Jericho believed in the coming judgment, only Rahab’s faith moved her to switch loyalties. Thus, her faith saved her (Heb. 11:31). The red cord in the window connects her story with Passover, where the angel of death passed over Israelite houses marked with lamb’s blood. Joshua’s forces passed over Rahab’s house, since it bore this mark. She is found in the genealogy of Jesus (Matt. 1:5).

(2)A mythological monster especially associated with the ocean that represented the natural forces of chaos in the world. Many scholars believe that Rahab is identical to the Canaanite Leviathan. In the OT Yahweh fights Rahab in the process of ending chaos and creating the world. Rahab is depicted as a poor opponent (Job 9:13; 26:12; Ps. 89:10; Isa. 51:9). Later, Egypt is sometimes equated with the monster Rahab (Ps. 87:4; Isa. 30:7), although there is no historic relationship between the two. The NKJV transliterates the Hebrew in Isa. 30:7 as though a proper name, Rahab-Hem-Shebeth, but most versions translate it with a phrase such as “Rahab the Do-Nothing” (NIV) or “Rahab who sits still” (ESV, NRSV).

The Red Sea separates the Arabian Peninsula (to the north and east) from the African continent along its approximately fourteen-hundred-mile length. At its southern end, the Red Sea is connected to the Indian Ocean through the Gulf of Aden. At its northern end, the Red Sea divides into the gulfs of Suez and Aqaba, which surround the Sinai Peninsula on two sides.

Perhaps the best-known appearance of the Red Sea (Heb. yam sup) in the Bible is the story of the exodus from Egypt and the miraculous crossing of the Red Sea by the Israelites (Exod. 14:1715:21).

Christ’s resurrection is the foundational event for the Christian faith. Paul goes so far as to say that if Christ did not rise, then the Christian faith is futile and Christians are to be pitied more than all others (1Cor. 15:1719). Resurrection’s climaxing position in all four Gospel narratives yields the same understanding. Christ came not merely to die, as some claim, but to conquer death. Resurrection gives everything that Christ did before his death an “of God” significance, and it establishes everything that follows as a guarantee of God’s eschatological promises. Without the resurrection, Jesus would have been just another “prophet hopeful” who died a tragic peasant death in Jerusalem. However, as it is, evidenced by the resurrection, he is the Son of God. According to the NT, the resurrection is the triumphant cry that God indeed did come to visit his creation and conquer the power of sin and death.

Although the Gospels’ presentations of Jesus’ resurrection vary in some detail (probably due to purpose and audience), all of them treat the event as the theological centerpiece of the Gospel narrative. The resurrection story launches God’s eschatological work and opens the door, as the postresurrection appearances show, for a connection between the Jesus story and the church story. It is the foundation both for the Great Commission (Matt. 28:18–20) and for Pentecost (Luke 24:49). All people of all nations can now meet the living Christ.

Righteousness is an important theme in both Testaments of the Bible. The concept includes faithfulness, justice, uprightness, correctness, loyalty, blamelessness, purity, salvation, and innocence. Because the theme is related to justification, it has important implications for the doctrine of salvation.

Being careful to avoid imposing Western philosophical categories onto OT texts, we may say that the core idea of righteousness is conformity to God’s person and will in moral uprightness, justness, justice, integrity, and faithfulness. Behind the many and varied uses of righteousness language in the OT stands the presupposition that God himself is righteous in the ultimate sense (e.g., Ezra 9:15; Isa. 45:21; Zeph. 3:5). Righteousness is the expression of his holiness in relationship to others (Isa. 5:16), and all other nuances of righteousness in the biblical texts are derived from this.

Related to humans, righteousness is often found as the opposite of wickedness. Righteousness often occurs in evaluative contexts, where it relates to proper conduct with respect to God, the order of the world as he created it, the covenant, or law (e.g., Deut. 6:25). God reigns in righteousness and justice (e.g., Ps. 97:2), and humans should align their conduct with this righteous reign. Righteousness can be expressed as personal integrity with phrases such as “my righteousness” (2Sam. 22:21, 25; Ps. 7:8) and “their righteousness” (1Sam. 26:23). Unrighteousness is found in poetic parallel to injustice (e.g., Jer. 22:13); the unjust are parallel with the wicked (Ps. 82:2).

Righteousness language is more rare in the Gospels than one might expect in light of OT and Jewish intertestamental usage. These references fit with the Jewish setting: righteousness is required of God’s people, and unrighteousness is to be avoided. Righteousness is proper conduct with respect to God or Torah (Matt. 21:32) in contrast to wickedness (Matt. 13:49). Righteousness could be conceived as one’s own (e.g., Luke 18:9) and has its reward (Matt. 10:41). While the specific terms related to righteousness are infrequent in the Gospels, the broader concept of conformity to God’s will is widely apparent in calls for repentance, personal moral uprightness, mercy, and concern for the marginalized. The NT Epistles continue these general strands of the concept. Righteousness is related to personal conduct (1Thess. 2:10; 1Tim. 6:11; 2Tim. 2:22; 1Pet. 2:24) and is contrasted with wickedness (2Cor. 6:14); it is a matter of doing, not knowing (Rom. 2:13). An example of righteousness in doing is the kindness shown by the prostitute Rahab, who hid the Israelite spies (James 2:25).

The NT does signal some new dimensions related to righteousness. In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 57), Jesus extends the requirements of righteousness to conformity to his own teaching and directives, a shocking display of authority. In his mission to call sinners rather than the “righteous” (e.g., Mark 2:17), Jesus implicitly questions the righteousness of the “righteous.” In similar manner, personal righteousness in terms of a righteousness of one’s own is negative in the NT (Rom. 10:3; Phil. 3:6; cf. Luke 18:9).

The NT continues the OT theme of righteousness as it relates to God himself. God is righteous (John 17:25; Rom. 3:5; 9:14; Heb. 6:10; cf. Matt. 6:33). His judgments are righteous (Rom. 2:5), and his commands and laws are righteous (Rom. 7:12; 8:4). God is a righteous judge (2Tim. 4:8). His saving activity is righteous; he does not compromise his own justice in justifying the ungodly (Rom. 3:24–26). The righteousness of God is contrasted with human unrighteousness and wickedness (Rom. 3:5; James 1:20). Since God reigns over creation in righteousness, human conduct should conform to that standard (e.g., Rom. 14:17). Jesus is also noted as righteous (Acts 3:14; 7:52; 22:14; 1Pet. 3:18; 1John 2:1, 29). He fulfilled righteousness in the absolute sense of demonstrating complete conformity to the nature and will of God (e.g., 1Pet. 3:18). He also fulfilled God’s righteousness in the sense of his saving activity toward humans (e.g., 2Pet. 1:1).

Samuel oversaw the transition from the period of judges to the time of the monarchy. He was the final judge (1Sam. 7:6, 1516; cf. 8:1 NIV mg.). He also was a priest (2:18) and functioned as a prophet (3:20).

Samuel was remembered as an important and faithful spiritual leader, compared favorably even to Moses (Jer. 15:1; Acts 13:20; Heb. 11:32). He is honored as a prophet whose words anticipated the coming of Jesus Christ (Acts 3:24).

The wife of Abraham, the father of Israel and God’s chosen people. Thus, Sarah is a matriarch (mother) of Israel along with Rebekah and Rachel.

According to Gen. 11:2930, Sarai was married to Abram before they entered the promised land. The passage also announces that she was barren. Since an essential part of the divine promises to Abram is that he will be father to a great nation, the lack of offspring is a considerable problem and propels much of the plot of the narrative (esp. Gen. 12–26).

In brief, Sarai’s inability to conceive is an obstacle to the fulfillment of the promise and is a threat to Abram’s faith. Thus, when a famine forces them to go to Egypt to survive, he tells his wife to lie about her status by saying that she is his sister. Although it is true that she is his half sister, the statement is a lie because he hides the most relevant part of his relationship with her and puts the matriarch in danger (Gen. 12:10–20; 20:12). Abraham’s faith (the narrative does not reveal Sarah’s thinking except perhaps in Gen. 18:10–15, when she laughs at the thought of giving birth in her old age) in God’s ability to fulfill the promise fluctuates, and he certainly has not come to a consistent position of trust even just before the birth of Isaac (Gen. 20). As a matter of fact, acting on fear and trying to produce an heir, Abraham takes a concubine, Hagar, who gives birth to Ishmael. Sarah’s relationship with Hagar is troubled (Gen. 16), and Sarah treats her harshly and eventually has Hagar and Ishmael expelled from their camp (21:8–21).

Eventually, in advanced old age, Sarah gives birth to Isaac, the child of the promise (Gen. 21:1–7). Sarah is not mentioned in the story of the “binding of Isaac,” the focus again being on Abraham’s faith.

Later OT literature often looks back on Abraham as patriarch, but only Isa. 51:2 explicitly mentions Sarah in the role of cofounder of the people of God. She is mentioned also in the NT, along with Abraham, as the one through whom God brings the promise of a son to fulfillment (Rom. 4:19; 9:9; Heb. 11:11). In 1Pet. 3:6 Sarah is put forward as a model of wifely submission because she obeys Abraham and refers to him as her lord (likely a reference to the Greek version of Gen. 18:12).

“Salvation” is the broadest term used to refer to God’s actions to solve the plight brought about by humankind’s sinful rebellion and its consequences. It is one of the central themes of the entire Bible, running from Genesis through Revelation.

In many places in the OT, salvation refers to being rescued from physical rather than spiritual trouble. Fearing the possibility of retribution from his brother Esau, Jacob prays, “Save me, I pray, from the hand of my brother Esau” (Gen. 32:11). The actions of Joseph in Egypt saved many from famine (45:57; 47:25; 50:20). Frequently in the psalms, individuals pray for salvation from enemies that threaten one’s safety or life (Pss. 17:14; 18:3; 70:1–3; 71:1–4; 91:1–3).

Related to this usage are places where the nation of Israel and/or its king were saved from enemies. The defining example of this is the exodus, whereby God delivered his people from their enslavement to the Egyptians, culminating in the destruction of Pharaoh and his army (Exod. 14:1–23). From that point forward in the history of Israel, God repeatedly saved Israel from its enemies, whether through a judge (e.g., Judg. 2:16; 3:9), a king (2Kings 14:27), or even a shepherd boy (1Sam. 17:1–58).

But these examples of national deliverance had a profound spiritual component as well. God did not save his people from physical danger as an end in itself; it was the necessary means for his plan to save them from their sins. The OT recognizes the need for salvation from sin (Pss. 39:8; 51:14; 120:2) but, as the NT makes evident, does not provide a final solution (Heb. 9:1–10:18). One of the clearest places that physical and spiritual salvation come together is Isa. 40–55, where Judah’s exile from the land and prophesied return are seen as the physical manifestation of the much more fundamental spiritual exile that resulted from sin. To address that far greater reality, God announces the day when the Suffering Servant would once and for all take away the sins of his people (Isa. 52:13–53:12).

As in the OT, the NT has places where salvation refers to being rescued from physical difficulty. Paul, for example, speaks of being saved from various physical dangers, including execution (2Cor. 1:8–10; Phil. 1:19; 2Tim. 4:17). In the midst of a fierce storm, Jesus’ disciples cry out, “Lord, save us! We’re going to drown!” (Matt. 8:25). But far more prominent are the places in the Gospels and Acts where physical healings are described with the verb sōzō, used to speak of salvation from sin. The healing of the woman with the hemorrhage (Mark 5:25–34), the blind man along the road (Luke 18:35–43), and even the man possessed by a demon (Luke 8:26–39), just to name a few, are described with the verb sōzō. The same verb, however, is also used to refer to Jesus forgiving someone’s sins (Luke 7:36–50) and to his mission to save the lost from their sins (Luke 19:10). Such overlap is a foretaste of the holistic salvation (physical and spiritual) that will be completed in the new heaven and earth (Rev. 21–22). The NT Epistles give extensive descriptions of how the work of Jesus Christ saves his people from their sins.

Sin enters the biblical story in Gen. 3. Despite God’s commandment to the contrary (2:1617), Eve ate from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil at the prompting of the serpent. When Adam joined Eve in eating the fruit, their rebellion was complete. They attempted to cover their guilt and shame, but the fig leaves were inadequate. God confronted them and was unimpressed with their attempts to shift the blame. Judgment fell heavily on the serpent, Eve, and Adam; even creation itself was affected (3:17–18).

In the midst of judgment, God made it clear in two specific ways that sin did not have the last word. First, God cryptically promised to put hostility between the offspring of the serpent and that of the woman (Gen. 3:15). Although the serpent would inflict a severe blow upon the offspring of the woman, the offspring of the woman would defeat the serpent. Second, God replaced the inadequate covering of the fig leaves with animal skins (3:21). The implication is that the death of the animal functioned as a substitute for Adam and Eve, covering their sin.

In one sense, the rest of the OT hangs on this question: How will a holy God satisfy his wrath against human sin and restore his relationship with human beings without compromising his justice? The short answer is: through Abraham and his offspring (Gen. 12:1–3), who eventually multiplied into the nation of Israel. After God redeemed them from their slavery in Egypt (Exod. 1–15), he brought them to Sinai to make a covenant with them that was predicated on obedience (19:5–6). A central component of this covenant was the sacrificial system (e.g., Lev. 1–7), which God provided as a means of dealing with sin. In addition to the regular sacrifices made for sin throughout the year, God set apart one day a year to atone for Israel’s sins (Lev. 16). On this Day of Atonement the high priest took the blood of a goat into the holy of holies and sprinkled it on the mercy seat as a sin offering. Afterward he took a second goat and confessed “all the iniquities of the people of Israel, and all their transgressions, all their sins, putting them on the head of the goat, and sending it away into the wilderness.... The goat shall bear on itself all their iniquities to a barren region; and the goat shall be set free in the wilderness” (Lev. 16:21–22 NRSV). In order for the holy God to dwell with sinful people, extensive provisions had to be made to enable fellowship.

During the next four hundred years of prophetic silence, the longing for God to finally put away the sins of his people grew. At last, when the conception and birth of Jesus were announced, it was revealed that he would “save his people from their sins” (Matt. 1:21). In the days before the public ministry of Jesus, John the Baptist prepared the way for him by “preaching a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Luke 3:3). Whereas both Adam and Israel were disobedient sons of God, Jesus proved to be the obedient Son by his faithfulness to God in the face of temptation (Matt. 2:13–15; 4:1–11; 26:36–46; Luke 3:23–4:13; Rom. 5:12–21; Phil. 2:8; Heb. 5:8–10). He was also the Suffering Servant who gave his life as a ransom for many (Mark 10:45; cf. Isa. 52:13–53:12). On the cross Jesus experienced the wrath of God that God’s people rightly deserved for their sin. With his justice fully satisfied, God was free to forgive and justify all who are identified with Christ by faith (Rom. 3:21–26). What neither the law nor the blood of bulls and goats could do, Jesus Christ did with his own blood (Rom. 8:3–4; Heb. 9:1–10:18).

After his resurrection and ascension, Jesus’ followers began proclaiming the “good news” (gospel) of what Jesus did and calling to people, “Repent and be baptized, every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins” (Acts 2:38). As people began to experience God’s forgiveness, they were so transformed that they forgave those who sinned against them (Matt. 6:12; 18:15–20; Col. 3:13). Although believers continue to struggle with sin in this life (Rom. 8:12–13; Gal. 5:16–25), sin is no longer master over them (Rom. 6:1–23). The Holy Spirit empowers them to fight sin as they long for the new heaven and earth, where there will be no sin, no death, and no curse (Rom. 8:12–30; Rev. 21–22).

As even this very brief survey of the biblical story line from Genesis to Revelation shows, sin is a fundamental aspect of the Bible’s plot. Sin generates the conflict that drives the biblical narrative; it is the fundamental “problem” that must be solved in order for God’s purposes in creation to be completed.

A wooden walking stick that could have various functions. In ancient times, people did considerable amounts of walking. The ground in Israel is very uneven and rocky, making a walking stick a useful item (Gen. 32:10; Matt. 10:10). It is likely that walking sticks were customized so that they could serve as identification (Gen. 38:25).

Besides their utilitarian purpose, a rod or staff also came to denote an office and/or one’s authority. Military figures carried staffs that indicated their status (Judg. 5:14), and Gen. 49:10 predicts that the ruler’s staff will not depart from the tribe of Judah. Shepherds also carried a staff (Ps. 23:4; Mic. 7:14).

Sometimes a staff signified the presence of God with an individual. It was symbolic of the tree from which it was made, and a tree sometimes symbolically represented God. For this reason, some divine signs are associated with a raised staff. This was the case of Aaron’s staff. The Red Sea split after Moses extended his rod, and the Israelites had the better of the Amalekites on the battlefield as long as Moses kept the rod above his head. See also Aaron’s Rod.

The word “star” is used in the Bible to refer to any bright point of light in the night sky; no linguistic distinction is made between stars and planets (cf. 2Pet. 1:19; Rev. 2:28; 22:16).

Stars often are used to illustrate the scope of God’s promises (Gen. 15:5; 22:17; 26:4; Deut. 10:22). They were used throughout the ancient Near East to represent the king, an association also evident in the OT (Num. 24:17; Isa. 14:12). Stars also were named, and some were objects of worship, a practice condemned in Israel (Amos 5:26; cf. Deut. 4:19). Stars were subject to study by foreign sages who sought to predict the future based on their observations, although their efficacy is denied (Isa. 47:13). Nonetheless, the arrival of the Messiah is heralded by a star in the service of its creator (Matt. 2:210). The falling (Rev. 6:13) and the darkening (Joel 2:10; 3:15) of stars are used to depict the coming of the day of the Lord in judgment.

While in the OT suffering is regularly an indication of divine displeasure (Lev. 26:1636; Deut. 28:20–68; Ps. 44:10–12; Isa. 1:25; cf. Heb. 10:26–31), in the NT it becomes the means by which blessing comes to humanity.

The Bible often shows that sinfulness results in suffering (Gen. 2:17; 6:5–7; Exod. 32:33; 2Sam. 12:13–18; Rom. 1:18; 1Cor. 11:27–30). Job’s friends mistakenly assume that he has suffered because of disobedience (Job 4:7–9; 8:3–4, 20; 11:6). Job passionately defends himself (12:4; 23:10), and in the final chapter of the book God commends Job and condemns his friends for their accusations (42:7–8; cf. 1:1, 22; 2:10). The writer makes clear that suffering is not necessarily evidence of sinfulness. Like Job’s friends, Jesus’ disciples assume that blindness is an indication of sinfulness (John 9:1–2). Jesus rejects this simplistic notion of retributive suffering (John 9:3, 6–7; cf. Luke 13:1–5).

The NT writers reveal that Jesus’ suffering was prophesied in the OT (Mark 9:12; 14:21; Luke 18:31–32; 24:46; Acts 3:18; 17:3; 26:22–23; 1Pet. 1:11; referring to OT texts such as Ps. 22; Isa. 52:13–53:12; Zech. 13:7). The Lord Jesus is presented as the answer to human suffering: (1)Through the incarnation, God’s Son personally experienced human suffering (Phil. 2:6–8; Heb. 2:9; 5:8). (2)Through his suffering, Christ paid the price for sin (Rom. 4:25; 3:25–26), so that believers are set free from sin (Rom. 6:6, 18, 22) and helped in temptation (Heb. 2:18). (3)Christ Jesus intercedes for his suffering followers (Rom. 8:34–35). (4)Christ is the example in suffering (1Pet. 2:21; 4:1; cf. Phil. 3:10; 2Cor. 1:5; 4:10; 1Pet. 4:13), and though he died once for sins (Heb. 10:12), he continues to suffer as his church suffers (Acts 9:4–5). (5)Christ provides hope of resurrection (Rom. 6:5; 1Cor. 15:20–26; Phil. 3:10–11) and a future life without suffering or death (Rev. 21:4).

The NT writers repeatedly mention the benefits of suffering, for it has become part of God’s work of redemption. The suffering of believers accompanies the proclamation and advancement of the gospel (Acts 5:41–42; 9:15–16; 2Cor. 4:10–11; 6:2–10; Phil. 1:12, 27–29; 1Thess. 2:14–16; 2Tim. 1:8; 4:5) and results in salvation (Matt. 10:22; 2Cor. 1:6; 1Thess. 2:16; 2Tim. 2:10; Heb. 10:39), faith (Heb. 10:32–34, 38–39; 1Pet. 1:7), the kingdom of God (Acts 14:22), resurrection from the dead (Phil. 3:10–11), and the crown of life (Rev. 2:10). It is an essential part of the development toward Christian maturity (Rom. 5:3–4; 2Cor. 4:11; Heb. 12:4; James 1:3–4; 1Pet. 1:7; 4:1).

Suffering is associated with knowing Christ (Phil. 3:10); daily inward renewal (2Cor. 4:16); purity, understanding, patience, kindness, sincere love, truthful speech, the power of God (2Cor. 4:4–10); comfort and endurance (2Cor. 1:6); obedience (Heb. 5:8); blessing (1Pet. 3:14; 4:14); glory (Rom. 8:17; 2Cor. 4:17); and joy (Matt. 5:12; Acts 5:41; 2Cor. 6:10; 12:10; James 1:2; 1Pet. 1:6; 4:13). Other positive results of Christian suffering include perseverance (Rom. 5:3; James 1:3), character and hope (Rom. 5:4), strength (2Cor. 12:10), and maturity and completeness (James 1:4). Present suffering is light and momentary when compared to future glory (Matt. 5:10–12; Acts 14:22; Rom. 8:18; 2Cor. 4:17; Heb. 10:34–36; 1Pet. 1:5–7; 4:12–13).

Throughout the Bible, believers are instructed to help those who suffer. The OT law provides principles for assisting the poor, the disadvantaged, and the oppressed (Exod. 20:10; 21:2; 23:11; Lev. 19:13, 34; 25:10, 35; Deut. 14:28–29; 15:1–2; 24:19–21). Jesus regularly taught his followers to help the poor (Matt. 5:42; 6:3; 19:21; 25:34–36; Luke 4:18; 12:33; 14:13, 21). It is believers’ responsibility to show mercy (Matt. 5:7; 9:13), be generous (Rom. 12:8; 2Cor. 8:7; 1Tim. 6:18), mourn with mourners (Rom. 12:15), carry other’s burdens (Gal. 6:1–2), and visit prisoners (Matt. 25:36, 43). See also Servant of the Lord.

The English term “witness” occurs in both Testaments numerous times, with a wide range of meanings. One common meaning relates to someone who gives legal testimony and to the legitimacy of that testimony (Num. 35:30; Deut. 17:6; 19:1516, 18; Prov. 12:17; Isa. 8:16, 20). Throughout the NT the term occurs primarily in the context of someone bearing witness—especially God—or testifying to something (Rom. 1:9; 2Cor. 1:23; Phil. 1:8; 1Thess. 2:5, 10), though it also has a forensic dimension in regard to one who establishes legal testimony (e.g., Acts 6:13; 7:58; 2Cor. 13:1; 1Tim. 5:19; Heb. 10:28).

Central to the concept of witness is the truthfulness of the witness. This was a vital component of the OT concept of witness. Thus, in legal proceedings a lone witness was insufficient to establish testimony against anyone (Deut. 17:6). This principle carries over into the NT (cf. Matt. 18:16; 2Cor. 13:1). Such truthfulness was so significant that the ninth commandment expressly forbids bearing false witness (Exod. 20:16; Deut. 5:20; cf. Prov. 19:5, 9).

Truth-telling was not something that the people of Israel were called to merely among themselves. They were to be God’s witnesses to the nations (Isa. 43:10; 44:8). As witnesses of God’s existence and holiness, they were called to be separate from the nations (Exod. 19:6) and to be a light to them (Isa. 49:6). Tragically, Israel failed in this responsibility and was deemed “blind” (Isa. 42:19).

The NT continues the concept that the people of God are to be God’s witnesses. John the Baptist is commissioned “to testify concerning that light” (John 1:7). It is in this context that Jesus later declares himself to be “the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5). Jesus himself is the exemplar of a “faithful witness” (Rev. 1:5). And his followers, whom he has designated as “the light of the world” (Matt. 5:14), are then called to bear witness to the ends of the earth (Acts 1:8).

“Witness” is also employed in terms of a legal testimony regarding what one has seen. That the disciples were intent on establishing such legal testimony is evident in their stipulation that the person to replace Judas Iscariot be someone from among those who had been with Jesus from the beginning of his ministry to his ascension, so that “one of these must become a witness with us of his resurrection” (Acts 1:22). This forensic aspect of witness appears in the close of the Gospel of John: “This is the disciple who testifies to these things and who wrote them down. We know that his testimony is true” (21:24). Paul demonstrates this forensic concern for witnesses when he references Peter, the Twelve, some five hundred others, and himself as among those who have witnessed the resurrection (1Cor. 15:3–8).

Throughout Revelation there resides a direct link between Christians bearing witness and suffering, and perhaps dying, as a consequence of this witness. This is evident in the mention of Antipas, who was martyred, and is then designated as “my faithful witness” (Rev. 2:13). Also, the two unnamed witnesses in 11:1–12, who explicitly function as witnesses, are the subject of attack and are eventually murdered. Their murder occurs only after they have finished “their testimony” (11:7).

It is this association of persecution and martyrdom that likely leads to the second-century employment of “martyr” as a designation for those who bear witness to Christ to the point of death.

“Word” is used in the Bible to refer to the speech of God in oral, written, or incarnate form. In each of these uses, God desires to make himself known to his people. The communication of God is always personal and relational, whether he speaks to call things into existence (Gen. 1) or to address an individual directly (Gen. 2:1617; Exod. 3:14). The prophets and the apostles received the word of God (Deut. 18:14–22; John 16:13), some of which was proclaimed but not recorded. The greatest revelation in this regard is the person of Jesus Christ, who is called the “Word” of God (John 1:1, 14).

The psalmist declared God’s word to be an eternal object of hope and trust that gives light and direction (Ps. 119), and Jesus declared the word to be truth (John 17:17). The word is particularized and intimately connected with God himself by means of the key phrases “your word,” “the word of God,” “the word of the Lord,” “word about Christ,” and “the word of Christ” (Rom. 10:17; Col. 3:16). Our understanding of the word is informed by a variety of terms and contexts in the canon of Scripture, a collection of which is found in Ps. 119.

The theme of the word in Ps. 119 is continued and clarified in the NT, accentuating the intimate connection between the word of God and God himself. The “Word” of God is the eternal Lord Jesus Christ (John 1:1; 1John 1:1–4), who took on flesh and blood so that we might see the glory of the eternal God. The sovereign glory of Christ as the Word of God is depicted in the vision of John in Rev. 19:13. As the Word of God, Jesus Christ ultimately gives us our lives (John 1:4; 6:33; 10:10), sustains our lives (John 5:24; 6:51, 54; 8:51), and ultimately renders a just judgment regarding our lives (John 5:30; 8:16, 26; 9:39; cf. Matt. 25:31–33; Heb. 4:12).

Worship of God is a critical dimension of both Testaments. One might argue that it is the very goal for which Israel and the church were formed.

The living God is the sole object of worship. He delights in the satisfying joy that his children find in him. The nature of worship is not about servant entertainment or passive observation; it is an active acknowledgment of God’s worth in a variety of humble ways.

A genuine selfless focus on the person and work of God brings about a humble response that affects one’s posture, generates works of service, and stirs up a healthy attitude of fear and respect. Knowledge of God is the foundational element in worship. God is worshiped for who he is and what he does. He is the Eternal One (Ps. 90:1; 1Tim. 1:17), unique in every way (Isa. 44:8); he is God alone (Deut. 6:4). He is distinguished by his self-existence, the self-reliant quality of his life (Exod. 3:14; Deut. 32:30). The psalmist calls God’s people to shout joyfully to their good, loving, eternal, and faithful Creator (Ps. 100).

God is worshiped as the Creator of all life. This magnificent creative work of God, declared in the opening of Genesis, is a critical focus in worship (Ps. 95:6; Rom. 1:25; Rev. 4:11). Along with this is the companion declaration that God is the redeemer. The redemptive work of God is celebrated in the Song of Moses (Exod. 15:118) and in the Song of the Redeemed (Rev. 14:3).

Worship is also associated with the royal aspects of God’s character. It was the desire of the magi to find Jesus the king and worship him (Matt. 2:1–2). The final scenes of history will be characterized by humble submission to and worship of the King of kings (1Tim. 6:15; Rev. 17:14; 19:16; cf. Rev. 15:3–4). The psalms often draw the reader’s attention to God’s royal character as a basis for worship (Pss. 45:11; 98:6).

Finally, God is worshiped as the Lord of his covenant relationship with the nation of Israel. This covenant theme and metaphor summarize the varied aspects of God’s character and his relationship with Israel. The God who brought Israel into a covenant relationship is to be sincerely and exclusively worshiped (2Kings 17:35, 38; cf. Deut. 31:20). These confessional statements about the character of God are a glorious weight that moves believers to prostrate themselves, to have an attitude of awe and respect, and to obediently serve.

The words “wrath” and “anger” are used in Bible translations for a variety of Hebrew and Greek words that refer to the disposition of someone (including God) toward persons (including oneself [Gen. 45:5]) or situations considered to be seriously displeasing. There may be degrees of anger (Zech. 1:15), and it may be accompanied by other sentiments such as distress (Gen. 45:5), hatred (Job 16:9), jealousy (Rom. 10:19), grief (Mark 3:5), and vengeance (Mic. 5:15).

Anger may be a proper response to sin or a sin-distorted world, as seen in, for example, Moses’ reaction to the golden calf (Exod. 32:19). Paul envisages an anger that does not necessarily involve sin (Eph. 4:26). Jesus is said to display anger at the willful stubbornness of his contemporaries (Mark 3:5), and his response to the mourning for Lazarus (John 11:33) might be rendered as “outrage,” an anger directed not so much at the mourners as at the ugliness of death, the consequence of sin, and with thoughts, perhaps, of his own impending death necessitated by this fallen world.

On the other hand, a display of anger may be the result of distorted perceptions or values (Gen. 4:56). A tendency to anger in oneself needs to be kept in check (James 1:19) and in others needs to be handled prudently (Prov. 15:1). Unchecked, anger may lead to violence and murder (Gen. 49:6). In several NT lists anger is associated with such other sinful behavior as quarreling, jealousy, selfishness, slander, malice, gossip, conceit, strife, idolatry, sorcery, and bitterness (2Cor. 12:20; Gal. 5:20; Eph. 4:31; Col. 3:8).

In Ps. 76:10 NLT (cf. ESV, NASB, NRSV) God is said to cause human anger to bring him praise (but see NIV, NET, where it is God’s wrath against human beings that brings him praise). Perhaps an instance of this is seen in Rom. 13:4–5, where the wrath of the civil authority serves to maintain justice under God.

“Abel” is the English spelling of two differentHebrew words. (1) Thename of Cain’s brother (Heb. hebel ). As Adam and Eve’ssecond son, he is mentioned in Gen. 4:2–9 (also v. 25) asthe murdered brother of Cain, who slew him out of anger at his beingmore favored by God for offering a better sacrifice. He is notmentioned again until the Gospels (Matt. 23:35; Luke 11:51), where heis cast as the first representative of the “righteous blood”shed on earth. (The phrase “the blood of righteous Abel to theblood of Zechariah son of Berekiah” [Matt. 23:35] constitutes achronological “A to Z” of innocent blood shedin the OT.) He is last referred to in the book of Hebrews. In Heb.11:4 an explanation is given for why Abel’s sacrifice wasfavored over Cain’s: it was offered in faith. In Heb. 12:24Abel’s blood is contrasted with Christ’s. The nature ofthe contrast is not made explicit, but the context suggests thatwhereas both Christ and Abel were innocent, it is Christ’s shedblood that is efficacious to mediate the new covenant. The word hebelis also the same one used throughout Ecclesiastes, often translated“vanity” or “meaningless.” Abel’s name,therefore, may symbolize his short life.

(2) Thefirst part of a number of OT place names (Heb. ’abel )meaning “brook” or “meadow.” It appearsseveral times, as seen in entries that follow here.

.A person from whom a person or group has descended in eithera physical or a spiritual sense. For Israel, the concept of one’sancestors and their God was of great significance in determining bothidentity and religious practice. Biblical concepts such as covenantand promise primarily found expression in the OT in terms of theancestral agreements established with God (Deut. 6:10; 9:5; 29:13;30:20; cf. Gen. 12:1–7). The effect of ancestors on one’sspiritual condition could have either positive or negativeimplications (Exod. 3:13; Josh. 24:14–15; 2 Tim. 1:5; Heb.11). The people of Israel are portrayed as suffering judgment bothfor their sins and for those of their ancestors, but also they couldfind repentance and hope because of the same relationships (Zech.1:4–6; Mal. 1:1–5).

Thereare thirteen primary genealogical lists in the OT and two in the NT,although there are numerous passages that include more limitedlineages to identify an individual. Genealogical lists could alsofunction to engender a notion of commonality of relationship outsidesingle family lines, such as when extended family genealogies aregiven (Gen. 10; 25:12–18; 36:1–30). For priests andkings, it was of utmost importance to be able to establish ancestralidentity. This necessity may have played a role in at least twodiscussions of Jesus. His genealogical lists in both Matt. 1 and Luke3 established his claim to the line of David, and his spiritualancestry in the person of Melchizedek in Heb. 7 granted him superiorstatus to the priesthood of Levi.

Worshipof ancestors, or the related but distinct cult of the dead, wascommon in nearly every culture with which Israel interacted and mayhave even found expression in popular practice among Israelites, asevidenced by the apparent leaving of gifts at several tomb locationsthroughout Palestine (cf. Ezek. 43:7–9). However, the biblicalrecord is consistent throughout that such practices were prohibited.Among laws centered on the topic of ancestral worship wererestrictions on consulting the dead at all (Deut. 18:11), givingofferings to the dead (Deut. 26:14), self-laceration for the dead(Deut. 14:1; Jer. 16:6), and seeking ancestors to foretell the future(Isa. 8:19; 65:4–8).

God announced to Noah that he was going to destroy all theinhabitants of the earth and commanded him to build an “ark”(Heb. tebah; Gen. 6:14–16). Apart from the Genesis floodnarrative, Exod. 2:3–5 is the only other passage in the Biblewhere this word is used, there for the ark of bulrushes in which theinfant Moses was placed. Both arks were made waterproof by a coatingof pitch (tar). An ark is something built to save people fromdrowning. It is not the name of a kind of boat as such (e.g., yacht),but rather a geometric boxlike shape. The ark was without rudder,sail, or any navigational aid.

Noahwas told to make it of “gopher wood” (Heb. goper), whichthe early Jewish Aramaic translations (Targumim) identified as cedar(NIV, NRSV, NET: “cypress wood”). The Hebrew word goperoccurs only here in the Bible, but the Akkadian equivalent (kupru) isfound at a similar point in the Epic of Gilgamesh. It was, then, theright kind of wood for a boat. The ark was to have “rooms”—thatis, cubicles (lit., “nests”)—for the differentanimals to be housed in and kept apart from other animals.

Afterthe general description of the ark (Gen. 6:14), details were providedby God on how to build it (6:15). Its length (300 cubits), width (50cubits), and height (30 cubits) were specified. “Cubit”literally means “forearm” (the distance from elbow to tipof middle finger), so the ark was approximately 450 feet (140 meters)long, 75 feet (23 meters) wide, and 45 feet (13.5 meters) high (seeNIV mg.). We cannot be exactly sure if “roof” (6:16) isthe correct translation of the Hebrew word tsohar, which may refer toa hatchway or skylight (Vulg.: fenestra [“window”]; notethe NIV 1984 mg.: “Make an opening for light”). Anotherpossibility is “pitched roof.” The usual Hebrew word,gag, is not used because that refers to a flat roof (see Josh. 2:6,8; 2 Sam. 11:2). The instruction to “finish it to a cubitabove” (RSV) refers to the pitch of the roof or its overhang.The “window” (Heb. khallon) that Noah opens in Gen. 8:6is probably to be equated with this skylight in the roof, not awindow in the side (since Noah cannot see out). In Gen. 8:13 Noahremoves the “covering” (Heb. mikseh) from the ark, so asto see the surface of the earth. (Gen. 5:1-32; Gen. 6:1-22; Gen7:1-24; Gen. 8:1-22).

Theark was to have a door in its side, which was closed by God (Gen.6:16; 7:16). The structure was also to have three decks, whichsuggests that the ark was viewed as a microcosmos, with its threelevels matching sky, earth, and sea. Genesis 6:17 explains why an arkis needed. The destruction will be by means of water, and the arkwill carry Noah and his family (eight persons), as well as at leastone pair of every living creature. The NT refers to Noah’sconstruction of the ark (Heb. 11:7; 1 Pet. 3:20) and hisentering it (Matt. 24:38; Luke 17:27).

The spectrum of meaning of “faith” and “faithfulness” may be applied both to God and to human beings. Cognates of “faith” are used interpersonally in human relationships but are used in the Bible specifically to denote the interaction between God and humanity, and human response to God. A question of theological pertinence is the degree to which one must distinguish between faith as an agent of personal belief and faith as an object of personal belief as pertaining to the relationship between God and human being.

In Hebrew the words most often translated “faith” or “faithful” are ’emunah and ’emet. In Greek the word rendered most frequently “faith” or “faithful” is pistis. In terms of their semantic domains, ’emunah and ’emet connote an objective sense of reliability (of persons) and stability (of inanimate objects); pistis conveys more of a subjective sense of placing confidence in a person, trusting in a person, or believing in a person or set of propositions. This subjective sense of pistis is correlated to considering the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence as reliable—“faithful.” Pistis likewise is used to communicate the quality of this person or belief as “committed” and “trustworthy.”

As noted, to some degree the meanings of the Hebrew and Greek terms overlap. However, certain dissimilarities are apparent as well. These observations play out in OT and NT expressions of faith. Martin Buber (1878–1965), a Jewish philosopher known for his academic work in the area of “faith,” distinguished between two types of faith: OT/Judaic faith, typified as tribal, national, and communal trust and fidelity based on the covenant; and NT/Christian faith, characterized as individual persuasion or belief in something.

Old Testament

Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.

Faithfulness as an attribute of God. Yahweh is presented in the OT as faithful to his promises, as faithfulness is a part of his very being. In the Torah the Israelites are reminded, “The Lord your God is God; he is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). Not only is God presented as keeping his covenant, but also the prophet Hosea calls God “the faithful Holy One” (Hos. 11:12). Isaiah likewise pre-sents faithfulness as an attribute of God (Isa. 49:7). The people can rest assured, for God is unchanging and reliable.

The psalmist speaks of Yahweh as the faithful God: “You have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God” (Ps. 31:5 NRSV); “he remains faithful forever” (Ps. 146:6). The translation “faithful” is warranted in these instances in the psalms. Its connotations are “truth” and “trustworthiness.” Yahweh is ascribed divine honor by his people recognizing and acknowledging his faithfulness and trustworthiness, and by responding to it in obedience as the people of God.

The faith of Abraham. Abraham’s (Abram’s) faith is used in the Bible as an example (Rom. 4:12; Gal. 3:6–9) in the sense that Abraham trusted God’s faithfulness in a way unequaled by other characters in the OT. Abraham lived in Mesopotamia when God spoke to him in a vision and told him that his descendants would be as innumerable as the stars in the sky (Gen. 15:1–5). Abraham trusted that God would be faithful to keep his promise despite insurmountable obstacles. This trust was credited to Abraham as righteousness (15:6). God subsequently initiated a covenant with Abraham (15:7–21).

Abraham’s life was characterized by his obedience to God and by his considering God to be faithful, something well noted by the early church (Heb. 11:8–11, 17–19) and used as an example of faith in the Christian walk (12:1). The three best-known examples of Abraham’s obedience and hence trust in God’s faithfulness are found consecutively in the departure from his homeland, the birth of his son Isaac, and the offering of Isaac as a sacrifice.

When God said to Abraham, “Go from your country, your people and your father’s household to the land I will show you” (Gen. 12:1), Abraham went as commanded (12:4). He obeyed despite his cultural disposition toward staying in the area of his ancestry and kin, and he went without knowledge of an appointed destination. Elderly and childless (12:7, 11–12), Abraham considered offspring to be impossible. However, Abraham trusted that God would be able to raise offspring for him, believing that he would become a great nation (12:2). His offspring Isaac was later reminded of the obedience of Abraham (26:5). Abraham’s greatest challenge of trust in God’s faithful provision came when he was commanded to offer his son Isaac as a burnt offering (22:2). He was commended for fearing God without reservation (22:12).

When the priest and initial leader of the Maccabean revolt, Mattathias, gave his farewell speech to his sons as he faced death in 166 BC, he placed his deeds along the lines of biblical heroes of faith such as Abraham. With likely reference to Abraham offering Isaac, he said, “Was not Abraham found faithful when tested, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness?” (1Macc. 2:52 NRSV). The early church likewise used this test in Abraham’s life as an example of his faithfulness, while at the same time claiming that the source for this faithfulness was found in faith—faith in God’s faithful provision (Heb. 11:17).

Faithfulness to the covenant. Faithfulness embodies the very core of the covenant relationship. God seeks a love relationship with humanity expressed in initiating his covenant. He is described as “abounding in love and faithfulness” (Exod. 34:6). His covenant love (Heb. khesed) is closely correlated to his faithfulness: “He is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love” (Deut. 7:9). Throughout the OT, Yahweh is shown as loyal to his covenant. Yahweh’s righteousness is seen in his faithfulness in keeping the covenant even when his people were disloyal and did not acknowledge his faithfulness. He delivered his people out of Egypt because of his covenant love and righteousness, as the psalmist declared: “But from everlasting to everlasting the Lord’s love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their children’s children—with those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts” (Ps. 103:17–18). He delivered them out of their subsequent exile, declaring them righteous because their repentant hearts trusted in his faithfulness and sought to obey his covenant. Yahweh said, “If I have not made my covenant with day and night and established the laws of heaven and earth, then I will reject the descendants of Jacob and David my servant and will not choose one of his sons to rule over the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes and have compassion on them” (Jer. 33:25–26).

God’s people, however, were expected to reciprocate and trust his faithfulness (1Chron. 16:15–16). When God met with Moses on Mount Sinai, he instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to obey the commands fully and to keep the covenant. It was only then that they would be a treasured possession, a holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6). The Israelites were expected to follow in obedience and thus reciprocate God’s faithfulness. The people of Israel often failed, but David and other godly people chose to be faithful to God and walk in his truth (Ps. 119:30; Heb. 11:4–38).

Faith counted as righteousness. Whereas faith is used throughout the OT in reference to God’s faithfulness and loyalty, it is used in Hab. 2:4 as pertaining to the faith of the righteous: “But the righteous will live by his faith” (NASB). In Rom. 1:17 Paul specifies, “For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith.’ ” He notes that God’s righteousness, even as revealed within OT promises, is by faith (“faith to faith,” or “faith, through and through”). By the parameters “from faith to faith,” Paul intends to exclude works of righteousness, a theme that he carries consistently in the first four chapters of Romans. Justification, for Habakkuk’s hearers, meant faithfulness, a single-minded focus on Yahweh to meet life’s essential needs. For Paul, salvation by way of justification meant that reliance upon Christ alone was foundational. In Pauline theology, faith is a thread connecting the old covenant with the new covenant.

New Testament

Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.

In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:28–29).

In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).

Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph. 2:8).

In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).

In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1Pet. 1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).

Faith is rarely addressed in the book of Revelation. Rather, faithfulness is the objective. Christ is described as the faithful and true witness (Rev. 1:5; 3:14), the perfect example for believers. One of the believers in Asia Minor, Antipas, is identified as Christ’s witness and faithful one (2:13). Those believers who, like Antipas, are faithful unto death, are called “overcomers” (2:10, 26). The faithless are thrown into the lake of fire, which represents the second death (21:8).

Faith and salvation. The role of faith in salvation is often hotly debated. Views are polarized between Christ as the object of faith and as the subject of faith. These views are designated as an objective genitive (faith in Christ), also known as an anthropological view, and a subjective genitive (the faithfulness of Christ), also known as a christological view. Thus, for example, Rom. 3:22 can be translated as “This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe” (cf. NRSV) or as “This righteousness from God comes through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ for all who believe” (cf. NET). In the latter translation the faithfulness of Christ is seen as the agent of salvation.

In Eph. 2:8 the phrase “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith,” points to faith as instrumental in salvation. However, the source of that faith is not made clear. Does God provide the faith required to be saved, and thus the event is out of the hands of humanity? Or does salvation require a response from human beings in the form of faith—that is, trust?

In the Letter to the Romans, Paul indicates a correlation between grace and faith (Rom. 4:16; 5:1–2), and he shows that Abraham’s faith, his belief and unwavering hope in God’s faithfulness, was credited to him as righteousness (4:18–22). In the new covenant this righteousness likewise is credited to those who believe in God (4:23–24).

Faith and works. In Eph. 2:8–10 works are described as an outflow of the faith of believers: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast. For we are God’s handiwork, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.”

Faith and works are also related in the letter of James, where works appear to be a prerequisite of faith, for faith without works is dead (2:26). While at first sight this might appear to contradict a Pauline understanding of faith and works (Rom. 3:19–5:1; Gal. 2:15–3:24), James and Paul use the word “works” differently. Paul uses it in terms of “obedience to the law,” something obsolete as a requirement in the new covenant. James, however, writes with regard to works of charity, not works of obedience to Jewish ritualistic law. Authentic faith, then, shows the evidence of good works—charity, the fruit of the Spirit.

Faith and the Church

Whereas baptism was a public initiation rite into the first-century Christian community, it was faith in Christ Jesus that was understood as establishing one’s membership in the family of God (Gal. 3:26). This membership was available to both Jews and Gentiles. Faith, the shared belief system in and confession of Jesus’ salvific work, became the common denominator in the Christian community. In Ephesians, faith is identified as one of the unifying elements of the church (Eph. 4:5). The prayer of faith heals the sick person in the church, another unifying element of applying faith (James 5:13–15).

Faith as a spiritual gift. According to the apostle Paul, the gift of faith is closely related to the life and functioning of the church (1Cor. 12:9). Mentioned among other gifts, or charismata (12:4), this aspect of faith is that benefit of salvation with which certain members of the church are graced and is used for the common good (12:7). This faith, then, is understood as edifying the Christian community at large rather than just the individual believer.

Faith and the Christian life. Christians are described as living by faith (2Cor. 5:7). Not only does faith lead people to Christ, but also Christ subsequently dwells in believers’ hearts through faith (Eph. 3:17). This Christian faith is subject to testing (James 1:2).

Faith is presented by Paul as present at different levels of growth among believers. Some Christians are weak in faith (Rom. 14:1), whereas others are strong in faith (15:1). Faith can differ in its strength of conviction (4:20–22; 14:5). It is presented as something that can grow (2Cor. 10:15).

Faith is grouped among gifts and virtues. Lifted out together with hope and love, faith is mentioned among gifts that edify believers in the church (1Cor. 13:13). Likewise, faith is mentioned as a Christian virtue among the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).

Worn around the neck, gold chains were a symbol of honor(Gen. 41:42; Prov. 1:9; Dan. 5:7). The temple and its furniture weredecorated with chain-like ornamentation (2 Chron. 3:5); similarmotifs are found also in non-Yahwistic cultic paraphernalia (Isa.40:19).

Prisoners(Ps. 107:10; Acts 12:6; 16:26; 21:33; Heb. 11:36) and war captives(Isa. 45:14; Jer. 40:1) were bound with chains, by the hands (Jer.40:4) or neck (Isa. 52:2). In one case, the Bible records anunsuccessful attempt to confine a demon-possessed man with chains(Mark 5:3–4). Paul often mentions the chains of hisimprisonment (Phil. 1:7, 13–17; Col. 4:3; 2 Tim. 2:9;Philem. 10, 13), once referring to himself paradoxically as an“ambassador in chains” (Eph. 6:20).

AtLachish four links of an iron chain were found. Extrabiblical recordsof the siege of Lachish suggest that such a chain was lowered fromthe city walls in an attempt to foul the Assyrian battering ram.

The spectrum of meaning of “faith” and “faithfulness” may be applied both to God and to human beings. Cognates of “faith” are used interpersonally in human relationships but are used in the Bible specifically to denote the interaction between God and humanity, and human response to God. A question of theological pertinence is the degree to which one must distinguish between faith as an agent of personal belief and faith as an object of personal belief as pertaining to the relationship between God and human being.

In Hebrew the words most often translated “faith” or “faithful” are ’emunah and ’emet. In Greek the word rendered most frequently “faith” or “faithful” is pistis. In terms of their semantic domains, ’emunah and ’emet connote an objective sense of reliability (of persons) and stability (of inanimate objects); pistis conveys more of a subjective sense of placing confidence in a person, trusting in a person, or believing in a person or set of propositions. This subjective sense of pistis is correlated to considering the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence as reliable—“faithful.” Pistis likewise is used to communicate the quality of this person or belief as “committed” and “trustworthy.”

As noted, to some degree the meanings of the Hebrew and Greek terms overlap. However, certain dissimilarities are apparent as well. These observations play out in OT and NT expressions of faith. Martin Buber (1878–1965), a Jewish philosopher known for his academic work in the area of “faith,” distinguished between two types of faith: OT/Judaic faith, typified as tribal, national, and communal trust and fidelity based on the covenant; and NT/Christian faith, characterized as individual persuasion or belief in something.

Old Testament

Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.

Faithfulness as an attribute of God. Yahweh is presented in the OT as faithful to his promises, as faithfulness is a part of his very being. In the Torah the Israelites are reminded, “The Lord your God is God; he is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). Not only is God presented as keeping his covenant, but also the prophet Hosea calls God “the faithful Holy One” (Hos. 11:12). Isaiah likewise pre-sents faithfulness as an attribute of God (Isa. 49:7). The people can rest assured, for God is unchanging and reliable.

The psalmist speaks of Yahweh as the faithful God: “You have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God” (Ps. 31:5 NRSV); “he remains faithful forever” (Ps. 146:6). The translation “faithful” is warranted in these instances in the psalms. Its connotations are “truth” and “trustworthiness.” Yahweh is ascribed divine honor by his people recognizing and acknowledging his faithfulness and trustworthiness, and by responding to it in obedience as the people of God.

The faith of Abraham. Abraham’s (Abram’s) faith is used in the Bible as an example (Rom. 4:12; Gal. 3:6–9) in the sense that Abraham trusted God’s faithfulness in a way unequaled by other characters in the OT. Abraham lived in Mesopotamia when God spoke to him in a vision and told him that his descendants would be as innumerable as the stars in the sky (Gen. 15:1–5). Abraham trusted that God would be faithful to keep his promise despite insurmountable obstacles. This trust was credited to Abraham as righteousness (15:6). God subsequently initiated a covenant with Abraham (15:7–21).

Abraham’s life was characterized by his obedience to God and by his considering God to be faithful, something well noted by the early church (Heb. 11:8–11, 17–19) and used as an example of faith in the Christian walk (12:1). The three best-known examples of Abraham’s obedience and hence trust in God’s faithfulness are found consecutively in the departure from his homeland, the birth of his son Isaac, and the offering of Isaac as a sacrifice.

When God said to Abraham, “Go from your country, your people and your father’s household to the land I will show you” (Gen. 12:1), Abraham went as commanded (12:4). He obeyed despite his cultural disposition toward staying in the area of his ancestry and kin, and he went without knowledge of an appointed destination. Elderly and childless (12:7, 11–12), Abraham considered offspring to be impossible. However, Abraham trusted that God would be able to raise offspring for him, believing that he would become a great nation (12:2). His offspring Isaac was later reminded of the obedience of Abraham (26:5). Abraham’s greatest challenge of trust in God’s faithful provision came when he was commanded to offer his son Isaac as a burnt offering (22:2). He was commended for fearing God without reservation (22:12).

When the priest and initial leader of the Maccabean revolt, Mattathias, gave his farewell speech to his sons as he faced death in 166 BC, he placed his deeds along the lines of biblical heroes of faith such as Abraham. With likely reference to Abraham offering Isaac, he said, “Was not Abraham found faithful when tested, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness?” (1Macc. 2:52 NRSV). The early church likewise used this test in Abraham’s life as an example of his faithfulness, while at the same time claiming that the source for this faithfulness was found in faith—faith in God’s faithful provision (Heb. 11:17).

Faithfulness to the covenant. Faithfulness embodies the very core of the covenant relationship. God seeks a love relationship with humanity expressed in initiating his covenant. He is described as “abounding in love and faithfulness” (Exod. 34:6). His covenant love (Heb. khesed) is closely correlated to his faithfulness: “He is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love” (Deut. 7:9). Throughout the OT, Yahweh is shown as loyal to his covenant. Yahweh’s righteousness is seen in his faithfulness in keeping the covenant even when his people were disloyal and did not acknowledge his faithfulness. He delivered his people out of Egypt because of his covenant love and righteousness, as the psalmist declared: “But from everlasting to everlasting the Lord’s love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their children’s children—with those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts” (Ps. 103:17–18). He delivered them out of their subsequent exile, declaring them righteous because their repentant hearts trusted in his faithfulness and sought to obey his covenant. Yahweh said, “If I have not made my covenant with day and night and established the laws of heaven and earth, then I will reject the descendants of Jacob and David my servant and will not choose one of his sons to rule over the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes and have compassion on them” (Jer. 33:25–26).

God’s people, however, were expected to reciprocate and trust his faithfulness (1Chron. 16:15–16). When God met with Moses on Mount Sinai, he instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to obey the commands fully and to keep the covenant. It was only then that they would be a treasured possession, a holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6). The Israelites were expected to follow in obedience and thus reciprocate God’s faithfulness. The people of Israel often failed, but David and other godly people chose to be faithful to God and walk in his truth (Ps. 119:30; Heb. 11:4–38).

Faith counted as righteousness. Whereas faith is used throughout the OT in reference to God’s faithfulness and loyalty, it is used in Hab. 2:4 as pertaining to the faith of the righteous: “But the righteous will live by his faith” (NASB). In Rom. 1:17 Paul specifies, “For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith.’ ” He notes that God’s righteousness, even as revealed within OT promises, is by faith (“faith to faith,” or “faith, through and through”). By the parameters “from faith to faith,” Paul intends to exclude works of righteousness, a theme that he carries consistently in the first four chapters of Romans. Justification, for Habakkuk’s hearers, meant faithfulness, a single-minded focus on Yahweh to meet life’s essential needs. For Paul, salvation by way of justification meant that reliance upon Christ alone was foundational. In Pauline theology, faith is a thread connecting the old covenant with the new covenant.

New Testament

Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.

In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:28–29).

In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).

Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph. 2:8).

In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).

In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1Pet. 1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).

Faith is rarely addressed in the book of Revelation. Rather, faithfulness is the objective. Christ is described as the faithful and true witness (Rev. 1:5; 3:14), the perfect example for believers. One of the believers in Asia Minor, Antipas, is identified as Christ’s witness and faithful one (2:13). Those believers who, like Antipas, are faithful unto death, are called “overcomers” (2:10, 26). The faithless are thrown into the lake of fire, which represents the second death (21:8).

Faith and salvation. The role of faith in salvation is often hotly debated. Views are polarized between Christ as the object of faith and as the subject of faith. These views are designated as an objective genitive (faith in Christ), also known as an anthropological view, and a subjective genitive (the faithfulness of Christ), also known as a christological view. Thus, for example, Rom. 3:22 can be translated as “This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe” (cf. NRSV) or as “This righteousness from God comes through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ for all who believe” (cf. NET). In the latter translation the faithfulness of Christ is seen as the agent of salvation.

In Eph. 2:8 the phrase “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith,” points to faith as instrumental in salvation. However, the source of that faith is not made clear. Does God provide the faith required to be saved, and thus the event is out of the hands of humanity? Or does salvation require a response from human beings in the form of faith—that is, trust?

In the Letter to the Romans, Paul indicates a correlation between grace and faith (Rom. 4:16; 5:1–2), and he shows that Abraham’s faith, his belief and unwavering hope in God’s faithfulness, was credited to him as righteousness (4:18–22). In the new covenant this righteousness likewise is credited to those who believe in God (4:23–24).

Faith and works. In Eph. 2:8–10 works are described as an outflow of the faith of believers: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast. For we are God’s handiwork, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.”

Faith and works are also related in the letter of James, where works appear to be a prerequisite of faith, for faith without works is dead (2:26). While at first sight this might appear to contradict a Pauline understanding of faith and works (Rom. 3:19–5:1; Gal. 2:15–3:24), James and Paul use the word “works” differently. Paul uses it in terms of “obedience to the law,” something obsolete as a requirement in the new covenant. James, however, writes with regard to works of charity, not works of obedience to Jewish ritualistic law. Authentic faith, then, shows the evidence of good works—charity, the fruit of the Spirit.

Faith and the Church

Whereas baptism was a public initiation rite into the first-century Christian community, it was faith in Christ Jesus that was understood as establishing one’s membership in the family of God (Gal. 3:26). This membership was available to both Jews and Gentiles. Faith, the shared belief system in and confession of Jesus’ salvific work, became the common denominator in the Christian community. In Ephesians, faith is identified as one of the unifying elements of the church (Eph. 4:5). The prayer of faith heals the sick person in the church, another unifying element of applying faith (James 5:13–15).

Faith as a spiritual gift. According to the apostle Paul, the gift of faith is closely related to the life and functioning of the church (1Cor. 12:9). Mentioned among other gifts, or charismata (12:4), this aspect of faith is that benefit of salvation with which certain members of the church are graced and is used for the common good (12:7). This faith, then, is understood as edifying the Christian community at large rather than just the individual believer.

Faith and the Christian life. Christians are described as living by faith (2Cor. 5:7). Not only does faith lead people to Christ, but also Christ subsequently dwells in believers’ hearts through faith (Eph. 3:17). This Christian faith is subject to testing (James 1:2).

Faith is presented by Paul as present at different levels of growth among believers. Some Christians are weak in faith (Rom. 14:1), whereas others are strong in faith (15:1). Faith can differ in its strength of conviction (4:20–22; 14:5). It is presented as something that can grow (2Cor. 10:15).

Faith is grouped among gifts and virtues. Lifted out together with hope and love, faith is mentioned among gifts that edify believers in the church (1Cor. 13:13). Likewise, faith is mentioned as a Christian virtue among the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).

The spectrum of meaning of “faith” and “faithfulness” may be applied both to God and to human beings. Cognates of “faith” are used interpersonally in human relationships but are used in the Bible specifically to denote the interaction between God and humanity, and human response to God. A question of theological pertinence is the degree to which one must distinguish between faith as an agent of personal belief and faith as an object of personal belief as pertaining to the relationship between God and human being.

In Hebrew the words most often translated “faith” or “faithful” are ’emunah and ’emet. In Greek the word rendered most frequently “faith” or “faithful” is pistis. In terms of their semantic domains, ’emunah and ’emet connote an objective sense of reliability (of persons) and stability (of inanimate objects); pistis conveys more of a subjective sense of placing confidence in a person, trusting in a person, or believing in a person or set of propositions. This subjective sense of pistis is correlated to considering the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence as reliable—“faithful.” Pistis likewise is used to communicate the quality of this person or belief as “committed” and “trustworthy.”

As noted, to some degree the meanings of the Hebrew and Greek terms overlap. However, certain dissimilarities are apparent as well. These observations play out in OT and NT expressions of faith. Martin Buber (1878–1965), a Jewish philosopher known for his academic work in the area of “faith,” distinguished between two types of faith: OT/Judaic faith, typified as tribal, national, and communal trust and fidelity based on the covenant; and NT/Christian faith, characterized as individual persuasion or belief in something.

Old Testament

Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.

Faithfulness as an attribute of God. Yahweh is presented in the OT as faithful to his promises, as faithfulness is a part of his very being. In the Torah the Israelites are reminded, “The Lord your God is God; he is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). Not only is God presented as keeping his covenant, but also the prophet Hosea calls God “the faithful Holy One” (Hos. 11:12). Isaiah likewise pre-sents faithfulness as an attribute of God (Isa. 49:7). The people can rest assured, for God is unchanging and reliable.

The psalmist speaks of Yahweh as the faithful God: “You have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God” (Ps. 31:5 NRSV); “he remains faithful forever” (Ps. 146:6). The translation “faithful” is warranted in these instances in the psalms. Its connotations are “truth” and “trustworthiness.” Yahweh is ascribed divine honor by his people recognizing and acknowledging his faithfulness and trustworthiness, and by responding to it in obedience as the people of God.

The faith of Abraham. Abraham’s (Abram’s) faith is used in the Bible as an example (Rom. 4:12; Gal. 3:6–9) in the sense that Abraham trusted God’s faithfulness in a way unequaled by other characters in the OT. Abraham lived in Mesopotamia when God spoke to him in a vision and told him that his descendants would be as innumerable as the stars in the sky (Gen. 15:1–5). Abraham trusted that God would be faithful to keep his promise despite insurmountable obstacles. This trust was credited to Abraham as righteousness (15:6). God subsequently initiated a covenant with Abraham (15:7–21).

Abraham’s life was characterized by his obedience to God and by his considering God to be faithful, something well noted by the early church (Heb. 11:8–11, 17–19) and used as an example of faith in the Christian walk (12:1). The three best-known examples of Abraham’s obedience and hence trust in God’s faithfulness are found consecutively in the departure from his homeland, the birth of his son Isaac, and the offering of Isaac as a sacrifice.

When God said to Abraham, “Go from your country, your people and your father’s household to the land I will show you” (Gen. 12:1), Abraham went as commanded (12:4). He obeyed despite his cultural disposition toward staying in the area of his ancestry and kin, and he went without knowledge of an appointed destination. Elderly and childless (12:7, 11–12), Abraham considered offspring to be impossible. However, Abraham trusted that God would be able to raise offspring for him, believing that he would become a great nation (12:2). His offspring Isaac was later reminded of the obedience of Abraham (26:5). Abraham’s greatest challenge of trust in God’s faithful provision came when he was commanded to offer his son Isaac as a burnt offering (22:2). He was commended for fearing God without reservation (22:12).

When the priest and initial leader of the Maccabean revolt, Mattathias, gave his farewell speech to his sons as he faced death in 166 BC, he placed his deeds along the lines of biblical heroes of faith such as Abraham. With likely reference to Abraham offering Isaac, he said, “Was not Abraham found faithful when tested, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness?” (1Macc. 2:52 NRSV). The early church likewise used this test in Abraham’s life as an example of his faithfulness, while at the same time claiming that the source for this faithfulness was found in faith—faith in God’s faithful provision (Heb. 11:17).

Faithfulness to the covenant. Faithfulness embodies the very core of the covenant relationship. God seeks a love relationship with humanity expressed in initiating his covenant. He is described as “abounding in love and faithfulness” (Exod. 34:6). His covenant love (Heb. khesed) is closely correlated to his faithfulness: “He is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love” (Deut. 7:9). Throughout the OT, Yahweh is shown as loyal to his covenant. Yahweh’s righteousness is seen in his faithfulness in keeping the covenant even when his people were disloyal and did not acknowledge his faithfulness. He delivered his people out of Egypt because of his covenant love and righteousness, as the psalmist declared: “But from everlasting to everlasting the Lord’s love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their children’s children—with those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts” (Ps. 103:17–18). He delivered them out of their subsequent exile, declaring them righteous because their repentant hearts trusted in his faithfulness and sought to obey his covenant. Yahweh said, “If I have not made my covenant with day and night and established the laws of heaven and earth, then I will reject the descendants of Jacob and David my servant and will not choose one of his sons to rule over the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes and have compassion on them” (Jer. 33:25–26).

God’s people, however, were expected to reciprocate and trust his faithfulness (1Chron. 16:15–16). When God met with Moses on Mount Sinai, he instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to obey the commands fully and to keep the covenant. It was only then that they would be a treasured possession, a holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6). The Israelites were expected to follow in obedience and thus reciprocate God’s faithfulness. The people of Israel often failed, but David and other godly people chose to be faithful to God and walk in his truth (Ps. 119:30; Heb. 11:4–38).

Faith counted as righteousness. Whereas faith is used throughout the OT in reference to God’s faithfulness and loyalty, it is used in Hab. 2:4 as pertaining to the faith of the righteous: “But the righteous will live by his faith” (NASB). In Rom. 1:17 Paul specifies, “For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith.’ ” He notes that God’s righteousness, even as revealed within OT promises, is by faith (“faith to faith,” or “faith, through and through”). By the parameters “from faith to faith,” Paul intends to exclude works of righteousness, a theme that he carries consistently in the first four chapters of Romans. Justification, for Habakkuk’s hearers, meant faithfulness, a single-minded focus on Yahweh to meet life’s essential needs. For Paul, salvation by way of justification meant that reliance upon Christ alone was foundational. In Pauline theology, faith is a thread connecting the old covenant with the new covenant.

New Testament

Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.

In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:28–29).

In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).

Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph. 2:8).

In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).

In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1Pet. 1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).

Faith is rarely addressed in the book of Revelation. Rather, faithfulness is the objective. Christ is described as the faithful and true witness (Rev. 1:5; 3:14), the perfect example for believers. One of the believers in Asia Minor, Antipas, is identified as Christ’s witness and faithful one (2:13). Those believers who, like Antipas, are faithful unto death, are called “overcomers” (2:10, 26). The faithless are thrown into the lake of fire, which represents the second death (21:8).

Faith and salvation. The role of faith in salvation is often hotly debated. Views are polarized between Christ as the object of faith and as the subject of faith. These views are designated as an objective genitive (faith in Christ), also known as an anthropological view, and a subjective genitive (the faithfulness of Christ), also known as a christological view. Thus, for example, Rom. 3:22 can be translated as “This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe” (cf. NRSV) or as “This righteousness from God comes through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ for all who believe” (cf. NET). In the latter translation the faithfulness of Christ is seen as the agent of salvation.

In Eph. 2:8 the phrase “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith,” points to faith as instrumental in salvation. However, the source of that faith is not made clear. Does God provide the faith required to be saved, and thus the event is out of the hands of humanity? Or does salvation require a response from human beings in the form of faith—that is, trust?

In the Letter to the Romans, Paul indicates a correlation between grace and faith (Rom. 4:16; 5:1–2), and he shows that Abraham’s faith, his belief and unwavering hope in God’s faithfulness, was credited to him as righteousness (4:18–22). In the new covenant this righteousness likewise is credited to those who believe in God (4:23–24).

Faith and works. In Eph. 2:8–10 works are described as an outflow of the faith of believers: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast. For we are God’s handiwork, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.”

Faith and works are also related in the letter of James, where works appear to be a prerequisite of faith, for faith without works is dead (2:26). While at first sight this might appear to contradict a Pauline understanding of faith and works (Rom. 3:19–5:1; Gal. 2:15–3:24), James and Paul use the word “works” differently. Paul uses it in terms of “obedience to the law,” something obsolete as a requirement in the new covenant. James, however, writes with regard to works of charity, not works of obedience to Jewish ritualistic law. Authentic faith, then, shows the evidence of good works—charity, the fruit of the Spirit.

Faith and the Church

Whereas baptism was a public initiation rite into the first-century Christian community, it was faith in Christ Jesus that was understood as establishing one’s membership in the family of God (Gal. 3:26). This membership was available to both Jews and Gentiles. Faith, the shared belief system in and confession of Jesus’ salvific work, became the common denominator in the Christian community. In Ephesians, faith is identified as one of the unifying elements of the church (Eph. 4:5). The prayer of faith heals the sick person in the church, another unifying element of applying faith (James 5:13–15).

Faith as a spiritual gift. According to the apostle Paul, the gift of faith is closely related to the life and functioning of the church (1Cor. 12:9). Mentioned among other gifts, or charismata (12:4), this aspect of faith is that benefit of salvation with which certain members of the church are graced and is used for the common good (12:7). This faith, then, is understood as edifying the Christian community at large rather than just the individual believer.

Faith and the Christian life. Christians are described as living by faith (2Cor. 5:7). Not only does faith lead people to Christ, but also Christ subsequently dwells in believers’ hearts through faith (Eph. 3:17). This Christian faith is subject to testing (James 1:2).

Faith is presented by Paul as present at different levels of growth among believers. Some Christians are weak in faith (Rom. 14:1), whereas others are strong in faith (15:1). Faith can differ in its strength of conviction (4:20–22; 14:5). It is presented as something that can grow (2Cor. 10:15).

Faith is grouped among gifts and virtues. Lifted out together with hope and love, faith is mentioned among gifts that edify believers in the church (1Cor. 13:13). Likewise, faith is mentioned as a Christian virtue among the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).

A cloven-hoofed ruminant, the domestic goat (Capra hircus)has been vital to the culture of Palestine. The considerable value ofthis animal is reflected in Jacob’s “gift” of twohundred female goats and twenty male goats, a symbolic restoration ofwhat he stole from Esau (Gen. 32:14; cf. 1Sam. 25:2–3;2Chron. 17:11).

Thediverse by-products from goats illustrate their practicalsignificance for life: milk (Prov. 27:27), goatskin bottles for waterand wine (Mark 2:22), goat’s hair garments and tents (Exod.35:26; 1Sam. 19:13; Heb. 11:37), and the prized meat of the kid(Judg. 6:19; Luke 15:29). Sacrificially, numerous offerings requireda goat, including burnt offerings (Lev. 1:10) and peace offerings(Lev. 3:12). Israel’s Day of Atonement required two goats: onefor a sin offering and another delivered to Azazel (Lev. 16:6–26).

Goatsgenerally are darker in color, while sheep tend to be white (Gen.30:32; Song 1:5). The resilience of goats was superior to sheep,adding to their worth. Israel’s leaders are compared to goatswho have abused the sheep (Zech. 10:3; cf. Dan. 8:5, 8, 21). NTeschatology replaces the “self-centered” goat with the“helpless” sheep (Matt. 25:31–46).

Scopeand Uses of the Word “Hope”

Attimes simply indicating a wish (2Cor. 11:1), in the Bible theword “hope” most often designates a disposition of soul,the grounds for one’s hope, or the outcome for which one hopes.

Thosewhom God has helped and delivered expect to see God’s poweragain when future needs arise, knowing that in God there are reasonsfor hope. Mere optimism assumes that bad circ*mstances will improvewith the passing of time. In contrast, hope assumes that God isfaithful and is convinced that he is able to bring about his goodpurpose (Isa. 44:1–8). So at its core, biblical hope is hope inGod, rooted in God’s covenant faithfulness (Ps. 62:5–8;Jer. 14:8; 17:13; Rom. 4:18; 5:1–5). Hope trusts God in thepresent and lives even now on the strength of God’s futureaccomplishments (Gal. 5:5; Heb. 11:1).

Bothof the main OT words for “hope” (Heb. roots qwh and ykhl)are at times translated “wait.” By definition, hope meansthat God’s promised outcome has not arrived, and that some timewill pass before it does. But that time is filled with a sense ofwaiting on God, often with a deep ache of longing for God to act (seePss. 25:16–21; 39:4–7; Isa. 40:28–31; Lam.3:19–24).

Theinner disposition of hope may be seriously threatened by injusticeand other devastating life experiences, as reflected in Job 6:8–13;14:19; 19:10. The refrain of Pss. 42:5–6, 11; 43:5 is apsalmist’s self-exhortation to hope amid oppressive anddepressing circ*mstances: “Why, my soul, are you downcast? Whyso disturbed within me? Put your hope in God, for I will yet praisehim, my Savior and my God.” Words for “hope”function similarly in other psalms of lament (Pss. 9:18; 31:24; 71:5,14; cf. Mic. 7:7).

TheOT usually locates individual hope within the horizon and limits ofthis world. One hopes for outcomes that may be realized in one’sown lifetime; indeed, when life ends, hope ends (Prov. 11:7; 24:20;Eccles. 9:4; Isa. 38:18). Proverbs that mention hope regardingsomeone’s character development show an underlying concern thatGod’s purposes be vindicated in one’s life (e.g., Prov.19:18; 26:12). When used in conjunction with Israel as a whole, hopelooks to a more distant future and coming generations.

Inthe NT, hope is closely associated with Christ and his saving work.Christians now live by hope in Christ (Eph. 1:12; 1Pet. 1:3;3:15); indeed, he is “Christ Jesus our hope” (1Tim.1:1), and his future appearing is “the blessed hope”(Titus 2:13). Thus, hope refers to eschatological glory (2Cor.3:11–12; Eph. 1:18). It is “the hope of the resurrection”(Acts 23:6; cf. 24:15; 26:6–9), our transformation intoChrist’s likeness (1John 3:1–3). That expectationstimulates various hopes for God’s plans to be realized inone’s own or others’ lives (1Cor. 9:10, 13; Phil.2:19, 23; 2Tim. 2:25; 2John 12). So hope is namedrepeatedly as an essential Christian attribute (Rom. 12:12; 15:4, 13;1Cor. 13:13).

Hopeas a Biblical Theme

Withthe God of hope as its covenant Lord, hope is a defining reality forIsrael and a persistent theme in the historical books (e.g., 2Sam.23:1–7; 2Kings 25:27–30). Psalmists find hopeeither in continuity with present structures (Ps. 37) or in drasticchange (Pss. 33; 82), such as personal or corporate restoration.

Judgmentdominates the message of the preexilic prophets, although expressionsof hope are also found. But Judah’s downfall in 587/586 BCmarks a turning point in prophetic hope. While preexilic prophecybases its indictment, appeal, and warning in the exodus and thecovenant, Jeremiah and Ezekiel tend to redirect hope and expectationto a new work of salvation that God will accomplish through and afterthe judgment of exile (e.g., Jer. 31:31–34; Ezek. 11:16–21;cf. Isa. 43:18–19). In the wake of Judah’s destruction,these prophets grasp a remarkable new vision of grace and promise.Restoration will be personal as well as national; forgiveness of sinwill enable obedience to God’s law, now to be found written ontheir hearts.

Duringthe exile, collection of Israel’s sacred texts enabled theshattered community to sustain identity and hope. Postexilic prophecyis often “text prophecy” that arises from reflection uponand reapplication of written prophecies, psalms, and other scripturaltexts. For example, the book of Zechariah (especially chaps. 9–14)alludes to many earlier writings and also moves toward apocalypticl*terature, contributing dramatic new imagery of God’s conquestof evil to establish his cosmic reign and fulfill his covenant.Messianic hopes rose throughout this period, fueled by earlierprophecies (e.g., Isa. 9; 11; 65:17; Jer. 23:5; Mic. 5:2).

Ifthe OT gives occasional hints of an afterlife, this hope becomesmanifest in the NT (2Tim. 1:10). Jesus promises the thief onthe cross fellowship after death (Luke 23:43). For Paul, “todepart and be with Christ” is such a vivid hope that “todie is gain” (Phil. 1:21–24). Such texts imply that deathushers the believer into Christ’s presence. Yet thisintermediate state is not the whole picture. We are saved in hope ofthe redemption of our bodies (Rom. 8:23–25)—ourresurrection from the dead and entry into a new glorified, bodilyexistence (1Cor. 15; Phil. 3:20–21).

Christis judge as well as savior (Matt. 16:27; 25:31–46; Acts 17:31;Rom. 2:16), and the NT anticipates final judgment of all persons andpowers arrayed against God, including sin and death (1Cor.15:24–26; 2Thess. 1:5–10). Christian hope involvesnothing less than the return and full revelation of Jesus Christ, theresurrection of the dead, and the renewal of all creation (1Thess.4:13–18; Rev. 21–22)—the complete vindication ofGod’s rule, secured already in Christ. Then God’sredeemed people will see his face and live in his presence forever(Matt. 5:8; Jude 24; Rev. 22:4). A vision of this future enables usto press on with hope, stretching toward what is to come (Phil.3:13–14).

(1)Renamed“Israel” by God (Gen. 32:28), he was the son of Isaac andRebekah and was the father of twelve sons, whose descendants becamethe twelve tribes. Half the book of Genesis (25:19–49:33)narrates his story and that of his sons. The middle chapters ofGenesis focus on his struggles with his brother, Esau, and with hisuncle Laban, and the later chapters focus on his children Dinah,Judah, and particularly Joseph during his time in Egypt.

Accordingto the Genesis narrative, Jacob’s mother, Rebekah, was barren,but God heard Isaac’s prayer, and she gave birth to twins, Esauthe older and Jacob the younger (25:21–26). He was named“Jacob,” which means “supplanter,” because hegripped Esau’s heel during their birth. Isaac favored Esau, butJacob was, so to speak, a “mama’s boy” (25:27–28).Jacob supplanted Esau twice, initially when Esau sold Jacob hisbirthright as firstborn son for some stew and later when Jacobpretended to be Esau, tricking his elderly father into giving himEsau’s blessing (25:29–34; 27:1–29). After thesecond incident, Esau swore to kill his brother, so Jacob fled toHarran, where his uncle Laban lived (27:41–28:5).

Enroute to Harran, Jacob had a dream of a stairway to heaven, and Godspoke to him, repeating the Abrahamic promise of land, blessing, manydescendants, and divine presence (28:10–22). He named the place“Bethel” (“house of God”) and made a vow toGod. Upon his arrival in Harran, he fell in love with Laban’syounger daughter, Rachel, and agreed to work seven years to marry her(29:9–30). When the wedding night came, Laban replaced Rachelwith her older sister, Leah, and somehow Jacob did not notice untilthe next day. Jacob then agreed to work seven more years for bothdaughters.

Thetext records the births of Jacob’s thirteen children(29:31–30:24). Since Jacob loved Rachel more than her sister,God blessed Leah with four sons (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah),while Rachel remained barren. Following the precedent set by Sarahwith Hagar, Rachel offered to Jacob her maidservant Bilhah, who gavebirth to two more sons (Dan and Naphtali). Leah then offered hermaidservant Zilpah, with whom Jacob fathered two more sons (Gad andAsher). Leah gave birth to two more sons (Issachar and Zebulun) andone daughter (Dinah). Finally, God opened Rachel’s womb, andshe gave birth to Jacob’s last sons, Joseph and Benjamin, butshe died when the latter was born (35:16–19).

Jacobended up working for Laban a total of twenty years, during which Godblessed both of them. God eventually told Jacob to return to the landof his ancestors, but Jacob did not tell Laban because he was worriedthat Laban would not allow Jacob to take his daughters to a distantland. Laban pursued Jacob, and eventually they made a covenant ofpeace (31:22–55).

Afterdeparting from Laban, Jacob received word that Esau was coming tomeet him with four hundred men (32:1–6). Jacob was fearful andprayed for deliverance from his brother, reminding God of the promiseto give him descendants as numerous as “the sand of the sea”(32:7–12). Jacob spent the night alone, and his prayers wereanswered in an unusual way in the form of a wrestler whom the textdescribes as both human and divine (32:22–32). The wrestlercould not defeat Jacob, but he did put Jacob’s hip out ofjoint. The wrestler asked Jacob his name, but he had the authority tochange it to “Israel” (“wrestles with God”).Jacob named the site “Peniel” (“face of God”)because he survived his face-to-face meeting with God. The next day,Jacob and Esau met not as foes but as friends, and Jacob told Esauthat meeting him was like seeing the face of God (33:1–11).

Thefamily crises that characterized Jacob’s life continued inCanaan. His daughter Dinah was raped by the Canaanite Shechem, so herolder brothers Simeon and Levi retaliated and killed all the males ofhis city (chap. 34). After Jacob’s favorite son, Joseph, toldhis brothers about his two dreams in which their sheaves and starsbowed down to him, they sold him into slavery and told Jacob that awild animal had killed Joseph, prompting Jacob to mourn for many days(chap. 37). Over twenty years later, during a famine in Canaan, Jacoblearned that Egypt had grain, so he sent ten of his sons (but notBenjamin) there to purchase grain (42:1–5). When they arrived,the brothers did not recognize the official in charge of grainstorage, Joseph, and bowed to him, fulfilling his dreams (42:6–9).When all eleven of the brothers later returned for more food, Josephorchestrated a test to see if they would allow his younger brother,Benjamin, also to be enslaved, but when Judah sacrificially offeredto be enslaved instead, Joseph broke down, revealed his identity, andwept (43:1–45:15).

Josephtold his brothers to bring Jacob and their families to Egypt becausethe famine would continue for five more years. Joseph rode hischariot out to the land of Goshen to be reunited with his father(46:28–34). In Egypt, Jacob blessed Pharaoh (47:7–10) andJoseph’s two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh (chap. 48), and alsouttered his final testament, involving blessings and curses on histwelve sons (49:1–28). He died in Egypt at the age of 147, butJoseph buried him in Canaan (47:28; 49:29–50:14).

Jacobis mentioned throughout the OT as a forefather to the nation ofIsrael (Exod. 2:24; 3:16; Deut. 1:8; 2Kings 13:23) as well asin Psalms and prophetic literature as a synonym for the nation Israel(Pss. 22:23; 105:23; Isa. 41:8; Jer. 2:4). In the NT, he appears inthe genealogies of Jesus (Matt. 1:2; Luke 3:34), alongside Abrahamand Isaac (Matt. 8:11; Acts 3:13), and among the heroes of faith(Heb. 11:9, 20–21).

(2)Thefather of Joseph, who was the husband of Mary the mother of Jesus(Matt. 1:15–16).

Moses played a leadership role in the founding of Israel as a“kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod. 19:6).Indeed, the narrative of Exodus through Deuteronomy is the story ofGod using Moses to found the nation of Israel. It begins with anaccount of his birth (Exod. 2) and ends with an account of his death(Deut. 34). Moses’ influence and importance extend well beyondhis lifetime, as later Scripture demonstrates.

Abraham’sDescendants in Egypt

Thebook of Genesis prepares the way for the story of Moses and thefounding of Israel. After recounting the creation of the world andthe fall into sin, the book eventually describes God’s choiceof Abraham as the one whose descendants he will make “a greatnation” and bring a blessing to the world (Gen. 12:1–3).However, by the end of Genesis, Abraham’s descendants have goneto Egypt in order to survive a devastating famine. Although they arein a good relationship with the Egyptian government, the hope isexpressed that God will eventually return them to the land of promise(Gen. 50:24–26).

Manyyears pass between the close of the book of Genesis and the beginningof Exodus. The Israelite population has grown from family size (aboutseventy people) to nation size. Out of fear, the Egyptians had begunto oppress them. Indeed, the size of the Israelite population soworried them that Pharaoh instituted a decree calling for the deathof all male babies born to the Israelites.

Moses’Life before the Exodus

Moseswas born in a dangerous time, and according to Pharaoh’sdecree, he should not have survived long after his birth. He was bornto Amram and Jochebed (Exod. 6:20). Circumventing Pharaoh’sdecree, Jochebed placed the infant Moses in a reed basket and floatedhim down the river. This act seems desperate, but there are similarstories from the Near East (the account of the birth of Sargon, anAkkadian king), and perhaps it was a way of placing the endangeredchild in the hands of God. God guided the basket down the river andinto the presence of none other than Pharaoh’s daughter (Exod.2:5–6), who, at the urging of Moses’ sister, hiredJochebed to take care of the child. When the infant grew older,Pharaoh’s daughter gave him a Hebrew name, “Moses,”which sounds like the Hebrew verb mashah, meaning “to draw out”(Exod. 2:10). This amazing story of Moses’ survival at birthinforms later Israel that their human savior was really provided bytheir divine savior.

Modernmovie adaptations of this story dwell on Moses’ upbringing inPharaoh’s household, but the Bible itself is essentially silenton this period of his life (apart from a reference to Moses’Egyptian education in Acts 7:22; cf. Heb. 11:24). The next majorepisode concerns his defense of an Israelite worker who was beingbeaten by an Egyptian (Exod. 2:11–25). In the process ofrescuing the Israelite, Moses killed the Egyptian. Apparently, hisrelationship to the ruler’s household would not save him frompunishment, so when it became clear that he was known to be thekiller, he fled Egypt and ended up in Midian, where he became amember of the family of a Midianite priest-chief, Jethro, by marryinghis daughter Zipporah.

Theterritory of Midian is vaguely described in the Bible, perhapsbecause its people were nomadic sheepherders. They were often foundaround the Gulf of Aqaba and sometimes farther northeast of theJordan River. The question is whether the tent of Jethro and MountSinai were on the Sinai Peninsula or on the eastern side of Aqaba inwhat is today Saudi Arabia.

AlthoughMoses was not looking for a way back into Egypt, God had differentplans. One day, while Moses was tending his sheep, God appeared tohim in the form of a burning bush and commissioned him to go back toEgypt and lead his people to freedom. Moses expressed reluctance, andso God grudgingly enlisted his older brother, Aaron, to accompany himas his spokesperson.

TheExodus and Wilderness Wandering

UponMoses’ return to Egypt, Pharaoh stubbornly refused to allow theIsraelites to leave Egypt. God directed Moses to announce a series ofplagues that ultimately induced Pharaoh to allow the Israelites todepart. After they left, Pharaoh had a change of mind and corneredthem on the shores of the Red Sea (Sea of Reeds). It was at the RedSea that God demonstrated his great power by splitting the sea andallowing the Israelites to escape before closing it again in judgmenton the Egyptians. Moses signaled the presence of God by lifting hisrod high in the air (Exod. 14:16). This event was long remembered asthe defining moment when God released Israel from Egyptian slavery(Pss. 77; 114), and it even became the paradigm for future divinerescues (Isa. 40:3–5; Hos. 2:14–15).

Afterthe crossing of the Red Sea, Moses led Israel back to Mount Sinai,the location of his divine commissioning. At this time, Moses went upthe mountain as a prophetic mediator for the people (Deut. 18:16). Hereceived the Ten Commandments, the rest of the law, and instructionsto build the tabernacle (Exod. 19–24). All these were part of anew covenantal arrangement that today we refer to as the Mosaic orSinaitic covenant.

However,as Moses came down the mountain with the law, he saw that the people,who had grown tired of waiting, were worshiping a false god that theyhad created in the form of a golden calf (Exod. 32). With the aid ofthe Levites, who that day assured their role as Israel’spriestly helpers, he brought God’s judgment against theoffenders and also interceded in prayer with God to prevent the totaldestruction of Israel.

Thusbegan Israel’s long story of rebellion against God. God wasparticularly upset with the lack of confidence that the Israeliteshad shown when the spies from the twelve tribes gave their report(Num. 13). They did not believe that God could handle the fearsomewarriors who lived in the land, and so God doomed them to forty yearsof wandering in the wilderness, enough time for the first generationto die. Not even Moses escaped this fate, since he had shown angeragainst God and attributed a miracle to his own power and not to Godwhen he struck a rock in order to get water (Num. 20:1–13).

Thus,Moses was not permitted to enter the land of promise, though he hadled the Israelites to the very brink of entry on the plains of Moab.There he gave his last sermon, which we know as the book ofDeuteronomy. The purpose of his sermon was to tell the secondgeneration of Israelites who were going to enter the land that theymust obey God’s law or suffer the consequences. The form of thesermon was that of a covenant renewal, and so Israel on this occasionreaffirmed its loyalty to God.

Afterthis, Moses went up on Mount Nebo, from which he could see thepromised land, and died. Deuteronomy concludes with the followingstatements: “Since then, no prophet has risen in Israel likeMoses, whom the Lord knew face to face.... For noone has ever shown the mighty power or performed the awesome deedsthat Moses did in the sight of all Israel” (Deut. 34:10, 12).

Legacyand Dates

TheNT honors Moses as God’s servant but also makes the point thatJesus is one who far surpasses Moses as a mediator between God andpeople (Acts 3:17–26; Heb.3).

Thedate of Moses is a matter of controversy because the biblical textdoes not name the pharaohs of the story. Many date him to thethirteenth century BC and associate him with RamessesII, butothers take 1Kings 6:1 at face value and date him to the end ofthe fifteenth century BC, perhaps during the reign of ThutmoseIII.

(1)Theeighth descendant listed in the line of Seth and the grandson ofMethuselah, Noah was used by God to preserve the human race throughthe flood. His name means “rest,” chosen because hisfather, Lamech, believed that God would use his son to bring restfrom the toil of life resulting from the fall (Gen. 5:29). Enoch washis great-grandfather, and like him, Noah is described as one who“walked faithfully with God” (Gen. 6:9; cf. 5:22, 24). Hewas the father of Shem, Ham, and Japheth.

Hisstory is told mainly in Gen. 6–9. Because of its greatwickedness, God resolved to destroy the human race. But Noah foundgrace in God’s sight, so God instructed him to build a largeboat as directed and to take aboard provisions for his family as wellas selected representatives of animal life. Noah dutifully obeyed,and his family thus was preserved through the ensuing catastrophe.From them the earth was repopulated (Gen. 10), and Noah was therecipient of various directives for the governance of thepostdiluvian world, often referred to as the Noahic covenant (Gen.9:1–17). Noah’s personal story ends with the curiousepisode of him getting drunk and subsequently cursing a son of Hamfor some offense that Ham committed, the nature of which is describedonly as seeing “the nakedness of his father” (Gen. 9:22ESV, NRSV, NASB). His age at the time of his death is given as 950.

Noahis mentioned two other times in the OT. God cites his promise thatthe “waters of Noah” never again would destroy the earthto affirm his covenant faithfulness to Israel (Isa. 54:9), and inanother text groups Noah together with Job and Daniel as those whocould deliver themselves by their righteousness, but not disobedientIsrael (Ezek. 14:14, 20). In the NT, Jesus cites the conditions inNoah’s day as being representative of conditions at the time ofhis coming (Matt. 24:37–38; Luke 17:26–27). Petermentions Noah twice, once to refer to the spirits of those whoperished in the flood (1Pet. 3:20) and once to use Noah as anexample of God’s ability to deliver his people (2Pet.2:5). Hebrews 11:7 lists Noah as a hero of faith.

(2)Oneof the five daughters of Zelophehad. Their petition for a portion oftheir deceased father’s property helped set a precedent forinheritance law in ancient Israel (Num. 27:1–11; cf. Josh.17:1–6). When it came time for the daughters of Zelophehad tomarry, a further decree was issued that inherited land must not passfrom tribe to tribe (Num. 36).

God announced to Noah that he was going to destroy all theinhabitants of the earth and commanded him to build an “ark”(Heb. tebah; Gen. 6:14–16). Apart from the Genesis floodnarrative, Exod. 2:3–5 is the only other passage in the Biblewhere this word is used, there for the ark of bulrushes in which theinfant Moses was placed. Both arks were made waterproof by a coatingof pitch (tar). An ark is something built to save people fromdrowning. It is not the name of a kind of boat as such (e.g., yacht),but rather a geometric boxlike shape. The ark was without rudder,sail, or any navigational aid.

Noahwas told to make it of “gopher wood” (Heb. goper), whichthe early Jewish Aramaic translations (Targumim) identified as cedar(NIV, NRSV, NET: “cypress wood”). The Hebrew word goperoccurs only here in the Bible, but the Akkadian equivalent (kupru) isfound at a similar point in the Epic of Gilgamesh. It was, then, theright kind of wood for a boat. The ark was to have “rooms”—thatis, cubicles (lit., “nests”)—for the differentanimals to be housed in and kept apart from other animals.

Afterthe general description of the ark (Gen. 6:14), details were providedby God on how to build it (6:15). Its length (300 cubits), width (50cubits), and height (30 cubits) were specified. “Cubit”literally means “forearm” (the distance from elbow to tipof middle finger), so the ark was approximately 450 feet (140 meters)long, 75 feet (23 meters) wide, and 45 feet (13.5 meters) high (seeNIV mg.). We cannot be exactly sure if “roof” (6:16) isthe correct translation of the Hebrew word tsohar, which may refer toa hatchway or skylight (Vulg.: fenestra [“window”]; notethe NIV 1984 mg.: “Make an opening for light”). Anotherpossibility is “pitched roof.” The usual Hebrew word,gag, is not used because that refers to a flat roof (see Josh. 2:6,8; 2 Sam. 11:2). The instruction to “finish it to a cubitabove” (RSV) refers to the pitch of the roof or its overhang.The “window” (Heb. khallon) that Noah opens in Gen. 8:6is probably to be equated with this skylight in the roof, not awindow in the side (since Noah cannot see out). In Gen. 8:13 Noahremoves the “covering” (Heb. mikseh) from the ark, so asto see the surface of the earth.

Theark was to have a door in its side, which was closed by God (Gen.6:16; 7:16). The structure was also to have three decks, whichsuggests that the ark was viewed as a microcosmos, with its threelevels matching sky, earth, and sea. Genesis 6:17 explains why an arkis needed. The destruction will be by means of water, and the arkwill carry Noah and his family (eight persons), as well as at leastone pair of every living creature. The NT refers to Noah’sconstruction of the ark (Heb. 11:7; 1 Pet. 3:20) and hisentering it (Matt. 24:38; Luke 17:27).

John and the author of Hebrews call Jesus Christ the “onlybegotten,” as traditionally translated (John 1:14, 18; 3:16,18; 1John 4:9; Heb. 11:17 KJV). The epithet, which is a singleword in Greek (monogenēs),signifies being the only one of its kind within a specificrelationship, and therefore, as we find in more recent translations,it may also be translated “one and only Son” (NIV) or“only son” (NRSV). Although the Bible claims that God hasmany humansons and daughters, in various senses he has but one “onlybegotten” Son, who must also be distinguished from the angels,who arealso identified as sons of God (Heb. 1:1–14; seealso Gen. 6:2,4).

Theauthor of Hebrews and Josephus, a first-century Jewish historian,present Isaac as Abraham’s “only begotten son”(Heb. 11:17 KJV; Josephus, Ant. 1.222). But Abraham has two sons, theother one being Ishmael, as the biblical narrative and Paul makeclear (Gen. 16:11–16; Gal. 4:22). The difference is that Isaacwas the only begotten between Abraham and his wife, Sarah, and theone for whom God decided to perpetuate the covenant that heoriginally made with Abraham (Gen. 12:1–3; 15:1–6;17:19). Isaac is presented by early Christians as a type of Christ,and for Paul, he is a type of all the children of the new covenant(Gal. 4:21–31). Nevertheless, through Jesus’ fulfillmentof God’s covenant obligations, many, including the descendantsof Ishmael, will be called “sons of God” (Gen. 17:20;Hos. 1:10, cited in Rom. 9:26; Matt. 5:9; Rom. 8:14, 19; Gal. 3:26;4:6).

Withoutcompromising the uniqueness of his position, the “one and only”Son is happy to share his status before God the Father through faith,by grace, which brings the believer into union with his body, thechurch (Gal. 2:19–20; Eph. 2:1–10; Heb. 2:10). Theconviction that Christ cannot be compared to human children orangels, parts of God’s creation, contributed to the belief ofcomparing Christ only with God, the uncreated.

A technical term for “promise” does not appear inthe OT, but its concept is present throughout Scripture. God unfoldsthe history of redemption by employing the idea of promises. Thewriters of the NT repeatedly assert that Jesus Christ has fulfilledGod’s promises in the OT (e.g., Luke 24:44–48; 1Cor.15:3–8).

OldTestament

Thepromises in the OT are closely related to the history of salvation.At each stage of redemptive history, God delivered a new messageabout redemption, usually in the form of a covenant. Immediatelyafter the fall of humankind, God first revealed his plan ofsalvation: the promise that the seed of the woman would ultimatelycrush the head of the serpent (Gen. 3:15). After the flood, God madea covenant with Noah, promising never again to destroy the earth witha flood (Gen. 8:21–9:17).

Mostremarkable is the promise that God made to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob(Gen. 12:1–3; 13:14–17; 17:4–8; 22:17–18;26:1–5; 28:13–15). God called Abraham in order to givehim three specific blessings: the land, descendants, and the channelof blessing among the nations. As a sign of his promise, God made acovenant of circumcision with Abraham and his descendants (17:10–14).With Isaac (26:1–5) and Jacob (28:13–15), God repeatedlyreconfirmed the promise made to Abraham. At the time of the exodusand later the settlement in Canaan, God’s promise to Abrahamwas partially fulfilled by multiplying his descendants into millionsand by giving them the promised land.

AtMount Sinai, God made another covenant with the Israelites. In thiscovenant, God promised that they would be his “treasuredpossession” among the nations if they would obey him and keephis covenant (Exod. 19:5). God’s special blessings werepronounced for them to be “a kingdom of priests and a holynation” (19:6). For this purpose, God gave them the TenCommandments, which became the religious and ethical standard for hiscovenant people (20:1–17). In the book of Deuteronomy,moreover, God’s promises were made in the form of blessings tothe obedient and of curses to the disobedient (Deut. 28). Later thesebecame the criteria by which the kings of Israel were judged todetermine whether they had lived an obedient life.

Accordingto 2 Sam. 7:11–16, God made an eternal covenant with David,promising the permanence of David’s house, kingdom, and throne.In this covenant it was also promised that his offspring would buildthe house of the Lord. The Davidic covenant was partially fulfilledat the time of Solomon, who as king built the house of the Lord, thefirst temple in Jerusalem (1Kings 8:15–25). Later, in theperiod of the classical prophets, when the hope for the Davidicthrone was endangered, the permanence of the Davidic throne andkingdom reappeared in the form of messianic prophecy (Jer. 23:5–8;Ezek. 37:24–28). This promise was ultimately fulfilled by thecoming of Jesus Christ from the line of David (Matt. 1:1–17).

Thehistory of Israel shows that although the nation repeatedly brokeGod’s covenants, he remained faithful to them. According toNum. 23:19, God’s promises are absolutely trustworthy: “Godis not human, that he should lie, not a human being, that he shouldchange his mind. Does he speak and then not act? Does he promise andnot fulfill?” The trustworthiness of God’s promisesresults from his unchanging character (Ps. 110:4; Mal. 3:6–7).The almighty God has the power to fulfill his promises (Isa. 55:11).When Joshua finished conquering the land of Canaan, he confessed thatGod was faithful in keeping all his promises to his ancestors (Josh.21:45; 23:14–15). Joshua himself witnessed that trusting God’spromises is a life-and-death issue. Those who had not trusted hispromise to give them the land of Canaan perished in the wilderness,but those who had trusted his promise were allowed to enter it (Num.14:1–35).

NewTestament

Thecentral message of the NT is that God’s promises in the OT arefulfilled with the coming of Jesus Christ. Matthew’s numerouscitation formulas are evidence of this theme. In Luke 4:16–21Jesus pronounces the fulfillment of Isaiah’s promise (about theMessiah’s ministry [Isa. 61:1–3]) in his own life. Thebook of Acts specifically states that Jesus’ suffering andresurrection and the coming of the Holy Spirit are the fulfillment ofthe OT promises (2:29–31; 13:32–34). Jesus’identity both as the descendant of David (Acts 13:23) and as theprophet like Moses (Acts 3:21–26; cf. Deut. 18:15–18) isalso regarded as the fulfillment of theOT.

Paul’sview of God’s promises is summarized in this statement: “Forno matter how many promises God has made, they are ‘Yes’in Christ” (2Cor. 1:20). According to Rom. 1:2–3,Paul regards the gospel as the message that God “promisedbeforehand through his prophets in the Holy Scriptures regarding hisSon.” In Rom. 4 Abraham’s faith is described in terms ofhis trust in God’s promises, which leads to his righteousness.He is presented as our model of faith in God’s promises. Thefamous phrase “according to the Scriptures” in 1Cor.15:3–4 is, in a sense, understood by Paul as the fulfillment ofGod’s promises regarding Christ’s death and resurrection.

Inthe book of Hebrews, the concept of promise plays an important role.In Heb. 6 Abraham is presented as the exemplary man who trusted inGod’s promise. The author exhorts the Hebrew Christians tofollow Abraham’s model of trust in God’s promise(6:12–20). The author also asserts that Jesus’ newcovenant is superior to the old one because his ministry “isestablished on better promises” (8:6). In Heb. 11 the faith ofthe great OT saints is acclaimed in terms of their faith in God’spromises.

Inthe NT, God makes new promises based on the work of Christ, includingthe final resurrection and the second coming of Christ (John 5:29;11:25–26; 1Cor. 15:48–57; 2Cor. 4:14;1Thess. 4:13–18). Furthermore, the message of the gospelis presented as multiple promises, including eternal life, thefullness of life in Christ, the forgiveness of sins, the indwellingof the Holy Spirit, the peace of God, the knowledge of God, and thejoy of God (Matt. 28:18–20; John 3:16; 10:10; 14:16, 27;16:20–24; 17:25–26; Phil. 4:4–9; 1John 1:9).

HumanPromises

TheScriptures contain many cases of people making promises to otherpeople. For example, Abraham made promises to the king of Sodom andto Abimelek (Gen. 14:22–24; 21:22–24). The Israelitespies made a promise to Rahab (Josh. 2:12–21). People also makepromises to God: Jacob, Jephthah, Hannah, and the returning exiles(Gen. 28:20–21; Judg. 11:29–40; 1Sam. 1:11–20;Neh. 10:28–29). Human promises usually are accompanied by thetaking of an oath (Gen. 14:22; 21:24; Deut. 6:13; Josh. 2:12–14)or the declaration of a curse in case of its breach (Ruth 1:17;1Sam. 14:24; 2Sam. 3:35; 1Kings 2:23). It isimperative to keep the promise that one makes to a human being or toGod (Num. 30:1–2; Ps. 50:14). In Mal. 2:14–16, divorce isregarded as a breaking of the oath between husband and wife. In OTtimes, people were afraid of curses falling upon them when they brokea promise. The Bible warns of the danger of making false promises, asdoing so will bring about sin and judgment (Lev. 19:12; Deut. 23:21;Zech. 8:17). It is an axiom of the wisdom literature that one shouldnot make promises rashly or lightly (Prov. 20:25; Eccles. 5:1–7),and Jesus prohibits the taking of any oath because of the possibilityof its breach (Matt. 5:33–37).

(1)Awoman associated with the conquest whose history is recounted inJosh. 2. Two Israelite soldiers entered Jericho and headed straightfor the nearest brothel (Josh. 2:1). There, they “lay down”(the literal meaning of shakab, which the NIV translates as “stayedthere”) with Rahab. They were on a reconnaissance mission underJoshua’s command, as a precursor to invasion. The king ofJericho demanded that Rahab hand over the spies to him. She lied andsent the pursuers away on a false path, enabling the Israelites toescape. Her justification for this action was that she, and all ofCanaan, knew that Israel’s God was with Israel and surely woulddestroy Jericho. She asked the spies to spare her family. This theypromised to do if she would mark her window with a red cord, whichshe did.

Theseacts identified Rahab with Israel and Israel’s God, making her,as it were, a defacto Israelite. Thus, her works justified herto Joshua and saved her family (James 2:25). Although the citizens ofJericho believed in the coming judgment, only Rahab’s faithmoved her to switch loyalties. Thus, her faith saved her (Heb.11:31). The red cord in the window connects her story with Passover,where the angel of death passed over Israelite houses marked withlamb’s blood. Joshua’s forces passed over Rahab’shouse, since it bore this mark. She is found in the genealogy ofJesus (Matt. 1:5).

(2)Amythological monster especially associated with the ocean thatrepresented the natural forces of chaos in the world. Many scholarsbelieve that Rahab is identical to the Canaanite Leviathan. In the OTYahweh fights Rahab in the process of ending chaos and creating theworld. Rahab is depicted as a poor opponent (Job 9:13; 26:12; Ps.89:10; Isa. 51:9). Later, Egypt is sometimes equated with the monsterRahab (Ps. 87:4; Isa. 30:7), although there is no historicrelationship between the two. The NKJV transliterates the Hebrew inIsa. 30:7 as though a proper name, Rahab-Hem-Shebeth, but mostversions translate it with a phrase such as “Rahab theDo-Nothing” (NIV) or “Rahab who sits still” (ESV,NRSV).

The term “salvation” is the broadest one used torefer to God’s actions to solve the plight brought about byhumankind’s sinful rebellion and its consequences. It is one ofthe central themes of the entire Bible, running from Genesis throughRevelation.

OldTestament

Inmany places in the OT, salvation refers to being rescued fromphysical rather than spiritual trouble. Fearing the possibility ofretribution from his brother Esau, Jacob prays, “Save me, Ipray, from the hand of my brother Esau” (Gen. 32:11). Theactions of Joseph in Egypt saved many from famine (45:5–7;47:25; 50:20). Frequently in the psalms, individuals pray forsalvation from enemies that threaten one’s safety or life (Pss.17:14; 18:3; 70:1–3; 71:1–4; 91:1–3).

Relatedto this usage are places where the nation of Israel and/or its kingwere saved from enemies. The defining example of this is the exodus,whereby God delivered his people from their enslavement to theEgyptians, culminating in the destruction of Pharaoh and his army(Exod. 14:1–23). From that point forward in the history ofIsrael, God repeatedly saved Israel from its enemies, whether througha judge (e.g., Judg. 2:16; 3:9), a king (2Kings 14:27), or evena shepherd boy (1Sam. 17:1–58).

Butthese examples of national deliverance had a profound spiritualcomponent as well. God did not save his people from physical dangeras an end in itself; it was the necessary means for his plan to savethem from their sins. The OT recognizes the need for salvation fromsin (Pss. 39:8; 51:14; 120:2) but, as the NT makes evident, does notprovide a final solution (Heb. 9:1–10:18). One of the clearestplaces that physical and spiritual salvation come together is Isa.40–55, where Judah’s exile from the land and prophesiedreturn are seen as the physical manifestation of the much morefundamental spiritual exile that resulted from sin. To address thatfar greater reality, God announces the day when the Suffering Servantwould once and for all take away the sins of his people (Isa.52:13–53:12).

NewTestament

Asin the OT, the NT has places where salvation refers to being rescuedfrom physical difficulty. Paul, for example, speaks of being savedfrom various physical dangers, including execution (2Cor.1:8–10; Phil. 1:19; 2Tim. 4:17). In the midst of a fiercestorm, Jesus’ disciplescry out, “Lord, save us! We’re going to drown!”(Matt. 8:25). But far more prominent are the places in the Gospelsand Acts where physical healings are described with the verb sōzō,used to speak of salvation from sin. The healing of the woman withthe hemorrhage (Mark 5:25–34), the blind man along the road(Luke 18:35–43), and even the man possessed by a demon (Luke8:26–39), just to name a few, are described with the verb sōzō.The same verb, however, is also used to refer to Jesus forgivingsomeone’ssins (Luke 7:36–50) and to his mission to save the lost fromtheir sins (Luke 19:10). Such overlap is a foretaste of the holisticsalvation (physical and spiritual) that will be completed in the newheaven and earth (Rev. 21–22). The NT Epistles give extensivedescriptions of how the work of Jesus Christ saves his people fromtheir sins (see below).

Components

Inseveral passages (e.g., Rom. 5:1–11; Eph. 2:1–10; Titus3:4–7) “salvation” is clearly a summary term forthe totality of what God has done for his people in and throughChrist. Salvation is such a rich and multifaceted work of God that ittakes a variety of terms to bring out its fullness. “Regeneration”refers to the new life that God imparts, bringing a person fromspiritual death to spiritual life (John 3:3–8; Eph. 2:4–7;Titus 3:4–7). “Justification” speaks of Goddeclaring a person not guilty in his court of law on the basis ofChrist’s sacrificial death and life of perfect obedience (Rom.3:21–5:12; Gal. 2:14–21). “Atonement”describes Christ’s payment for sin and resulting forgiveness(Rom. 3:21–26; Heb. 2:17). “Redemption” capturesthe reality of God paying the price to bring his people out of theirslavery to sin and into the freedom of the Spirit (Gal. 4:1–7;5:1). “Reconciliation” refers to God turning hardenedrebels and enemies into his friends (Rom. 5:10–11; 2Cor.5:18–21; Col. 1:20–22). “Adoption” extendsthat reality into the astonishing truth that God makes those whom hereconciles not just his friends but his sons and daughters (Rom.8:14–25; Gal. 4:1–7). In “sanctification” Godsets his people apart for his special purposes and progressivelychanges them into the image of Christ (1Cor. 1:30 ESV, NRSV,NASB; cf. Rom. 8:29). The final component is “glorification,”when God brings to completion the work of salvation by granting hispeople resurrection bodies, removing every last stain of sin, death,and the curse and placing them in a new heaven and earth (Rom. 8:30;1Cor. 15:35–57; Rev. 21–22).

Prepositionsof Salvation

Anotherway that the Bible fills out the nature of salvation is through thevarious prepositions connected to it. The prepositions in thefollowing list are among the more significant.

From.Since the basic idea of salvation is rescue from danger, it is notsurprising that Scripture describes that from which believers aresaved. David cries out to God, “Save me from all mytransgressions” (Ps. 39:8). Salvation from sin is possible onlythrough Jesus, for it is he who “will save his people fromtheir sins” (Matt. 1:21). Reflecting on the work of Jesus onthe cross, Paul claims that because of the sacrificial death ofChrist believers are saved from God’s wrath (Rom. 5:9–10).At the same time, the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus savedpeople from their slavery to sin (Rom. 6:1–11). As a result ofthese and other things from which Christ has saved people, on the dayof Pentecost Peter exhorts his audience to be saved “from thiscorrupt generation” (Acts 2:40). Thus, the unanimous testimonyof Scripture is that believers have been saved from their sin and itsconsequences.

To/into.Believers are saved not merely from something; they are saved to/intocertain states or conditions. Whereas they were once slaves,believers have now been saved “into the freedom and glory ofthe children of God” (Rom. 8:21 [cf. Gal. 5:1]). Through thecross God “has rescued us from the dominion of darkness andbrought us into the kingdom of the Son he loves” (Col. 1:13).Another way of stating this reality is to speak of the peace intowhich believers now have been brought as a result of Christ’swork on their behalf (John 14:27).

By.Scripture frequently uses the preposition “by” to expressthe instrument of salvation. Stated negatively, “It is not bysword or spear that the Lord saves” (1Sam. 17:47). In thebroadest sense, believers are saved from their sins by the gospel(1Cor. 15:1–2). More specifically, salvation is by thegrace of God (Eph. 2:5, 8). The preposition “by” can alsoexpress the agent of salvation. A distinguishing feature of Israelwas that it was saved from its enemies by God (Deut. 33:29; Isa.45:17). The same thing is meant when Scripture speaks of God savinghis people by his right hand (Ps. 17:7) or his name (Ps. 54:1).

Through.The consistent testimony of the Bible is that salvation comes throughfaith (e.g., Eph. 2:8–9). Through faith, believers have beenjustified (Rom. 3:22; 5:1–2) and made children of God (Gal.3:26). It is not righteousness based on the law that matters, “butthat which is through faith in Christ” (Phil. 3:9). Theremarkable actions of God’s people throughout history have beenaccomplished through faith (Heb. 11:1–40).

In.Especially in Paul’s writings the various components ofsalvation (see above) are modified with the phrase “in Christ”or “in him.” Believers are chosen (Eph. 1:4), redeemed(Eph. 1:7), justified (Gal. 2:17), and sanctified (1Cor. 1:2)in Christ. Indeed, God has blessed believers “in the heavenlyrealms with every spiritual blessing in Christ” (Eph. 1:3).

With.Many of the components of salvation that believers experience aresaid to happen “with Christ.” Believers are united withChrist in his death, burial, and resurrection (Rom. 6:4–11;Gal. 2:20). With Christ, believers have been made alive, raised up,and seated in the heavenly realms (Eph. 2:4–6; Col. 2:13).Because of their union with Christ, believers share in hisinheritance (Rom. 8:16–17; Gal. 3:29; 1Pet. 1:4). Eventhe very life of the believer is said to be currently “hiddenwith Christ in God” (Col. 3:3).

Tensesof Salvation

TheBible speaks of salvation in the past, present, and future tenses.Pointing to a definitive experience in the past, Paul tells believersthat “in this hope we were saved” (Rom. 8:24). Yet he canalso speak of himself and other believers as those “who arebeing saved” (1Cor. 1:18; 2Cor. 2:15), pointing toa process that is ongoing. Just a few sentences after assuringbelievers that they have been justified already (Rom. 5:1–2),he can still say that believers will “be saved from God’swrath” through Christ (Rom. 5:9–10).

Theuse of these three tenses reflects the “already and not yet”dynamic of salvation. Through the obedience, death, resurrection, andascension of Jesus, God has rescued his people from their sins. Butthe final and complete realization of all the benefits of salvationmust still await the return of Christ and the establishment of a newheaven and earth (Rev. 19–22).

Conclusion

Withouta proper understanding of humankind’s plight as a result of itsrebellion, the Bible’s repeated emphasis on salvation makeslittle sense. Because sin is humanity’s greatest problem,salvation is humanity’s greatest need. Given the breadth,width, and depth of what God has done to save his people from theirsins through Jesus Christ, it is no wonder that the author of Hebrewsasks, “How shall we escape if we ignore so great a salvation?”(2:3).

The last judge of Israel whose story is found in the book ofJudges (the story of Eli’s and Samuel’s judgeship isfound in 1Samuel). The period of judges was a time of spiritualconfusion, moral depravity, and political fragmentation. Thesituation became increasingly worse as time wore on in Judges, andthe time of Samson was the worst of all. Samson did nothing except tosatisfy his own desires and lusts. He did not care about God, hisfamily, or his nation. Even so, God used him to deliver Israel inspite of his sin.

Samson’smother had been childless. An angel announced that she would have achild, but she must consecrate him as a Nazirite, a special holystatus. Numbers 6:1–21 describes the rules by which such aperson must live, including not drinking wine, cutting one’shair, or coming into contact with anything that was dead. (See alsoNazirite.)

WhenSamson grew up, he did not seem particularly interested in observingNazirite requirements or even acting like a good Israelite. Againsthis parents’ wishes, he even married a Philistine woman (Judg.14). On the way to the wedding, he scooped honey out of the carcassof a dead lion, thus breaking his Nazirite vow. He also came up witha riddle and bet his Philistine groomsmen that they could not solveit. When they did (because they forced his wife to reveal the answerto them), he killed thirty Philistines in order to steal theirclothes to pay off the bet. This story sets a pattern for thefollowing stories of Samson pursuing his own desires and, whenfrustrated, killing Philistines or destroying their property. Samsonwas doing this for his own ends; God was using it to weaken thePhilistines.

Theclimactic story is more of the same. Samson took up with anotherPhilistine woman, Delilah. She pestered him to reveal the secret ofhis great strength. At first, he misled her twice by saying that hisstrength would be diminished if he was bound by “seven freshbowstrings” (Judg. 16:7) or if she wove the seven braids of hishair (16:13–14), both of which she did, to no effect. Finally,he gave into her nagging and told her his secret. Delilah then cutoff his hair, rendering him powerless. After Samson was takencaptive, he was put on display in the Philistine temple. He prayedfor the strength to bring the temple down on the heads of thePhilistines, and God granted it. “Thus he killed many more whenhe died than while he lived” (16:30). But even this act wasdone not for theglory of God, but rather to “get revengeon the Philistines for my two eyes” (16:28), which thePhilistines had gouged out. Even so, the book of Hebrews points toSamson as an example of faith, perhaps referring not to his personalfaith, but to the fact that God used him to further his purposes ofsalvation (Heb. 11:32).

Samuel oversaw the transition from the period of judges tothe time of the monarchy. He was the final judge (1Sam. 7:6,15–16; cf. 8:1 NIV mg.). He also was a priest (2:18) andfunctioned as a prophet (3:20).

Theaccount of his life begins when his mother, Hannah, desperatelyprayed that God would open her barren womb. The situation in Israelwas not good. Eli, the high priest, was incompetent and spirituallydull. He even mistook her sincere prayers for the blabbering of adrunkard (1Sam. 1:12–16). In answer to her prayers andher vow to dedicate her future child as a Nazirite (cf. Num. 6:1–21),God opened her womb, and Samuel was born. Upon his birth, he wascommitted to the service of Yahweh at the tabernacle.

Samuelwas quite different from Eli’s wicked sons, Hophni andPhinehas. While they stole from the sacrifices and slept with thewomen who ministered at the tabernacle, Samuel “was ministeringbefore the Lord” (1Sam. 2:18). The narrative even draws acontrast between Samuel and Eli in that the latter was dull and didnot immediately recognize that God was speaking to Samuel one evening(1Sam. 3).

Sometimeafter the death of Eli, Samuel found himself in the position ofleadership as a judge in Israel (1Sam. 7). God used him toinflict a serious, but not decisive, defeat against the Philistines.Afterward Samuel set up a stone called “Ebenezer” (“stoneof help”) to commemorate the event.

Thepeople, however, felt that Israel needed a stronger central leader toexpel the Philistines from their land, so they requested that Samuelanoint a king over them (1Sam. 8:5). This worried and angeredSamuel, who took it as a personal affront, and in reality it was moreseriously an insult toward God. The people should have trusted God toprovide the victory over the Philistines. Even so, God directedSamuel to anoint a king over the people, and Saul was chosen.

Afterthis event, Samuel no longer was judge over Israel, but he was apriest and a prophet. As such, he led the people in a covenantrenewal ritual whereby they reaffirmed their allegiance to God, theheavenly king, even though they now had an earthly king (1Sam.12).

Aspart of his duties, Samuel operated as the conscience of King Saul.He confronted Saul on numerous occasions when the king chose to gohis own way rather than obey the commands of Yahweh (1Sam.13;15).

Saulgreatly disappointed God and his representative Samuel. Accordingly,God commissioned Samuel to anoint the next king, even before thedeath of Saul. In Bethlehem, God directed Samuel to anoint David asthe future king of Israel.

Samueldied and was buried at Ramah before David’s kingship became areality (1Sam. 25:1). Even with death, the story of Samuel doesnot end. Toward the end of Saul’s life, God cut offcommunication with him. Desperate to control the outcome of a battlewith the Philistines, Saul showed his spiritual perversity byconsulting a necromancer. The latter summoned Samuel from the dead(1Sam. 28), and Samuel pronounced Saul’s demise.

Samuelwas remembered as an important and faithful spiritual leader,compared favorably even to Moses (Jer. 15:1; Acts 13:20; Heb. 11:32).He is honored as a prophet whose words anticipated the coming ofJesus Christ (Acts 3:24).

The wife of Abraham, the father of Israel and God’schosen people. Thus, Sarah is a matriarch (mother) of Israel alongwith Rebekah and Rachel. When first introduced, her name is given as“Sarai,” but God changes it to “Sarah” (atthe same time Abram’s name is changed to “Abraham”[Gen. 17:15–16]). Both names mean “princess.” Thesignificance of the change may be subtle, since “Sarai”is an East Semitic version of West Semitic “Sarah,”indicating her transition from Mesopotamia to the promised land.

Accordingto Gen. 11:29–30, Sarai was married to Abram before theyentered the promised land. The passage also announces that she wasbarren. Since an essential part of the divine promises to Abram isthat he will be father to a great nation, the lack of offspring is aconsiderable problem and propels much of the plot of the narrative(esp. Gen. 12–26).

Inbrief, Sarai’s inability to conceive is an obstacle to thefulfillment of the promise and is a threat to Abram’s faith.Thus, when a famine forces them to go to Egypt to survive, he tellshis wife to lie about her status by saying that she is his sister.Although it is true that she is his half sister, the statement is alie because he hides the most relevant part of his relationship withher and puts the matriarch in danger (Gen. 12:10–20; 20:12).Abraham’s faith (the narrative does not reveal Sarah’sthinking except perhaps in Gen. 18:10–15, when she laughs atthe thought of giving birth in her old age) in God’s ability tofulfill the promise fluctuates, and he certainly has not come to aconsistent position of trust even just before the birth of Isaac(Gen. 20). As a matter of fact, acting on fear and trying to producean heir, Abraham takes a concubine, Hagar, who gives birth toIshmael. Sarah’s relationship with Hagar is troubled (Gen. 16),and Sarah treats her harshly and eventually has Hagar and Ishmaelexpelled from their camp (21:8–21).

Eventually,in advanced old age, Sarah gives birth to Isaac, the child of thepromise (Gen. 21:1–7). Sarah is not mentioned in the story ofthe “binding of Isaac,” the focus again being onAbraham’s faith.

Sarahpredeceases Abraham, and he buys a field from Ephron the Hittite inorder to bury her (Gen. 23), the first part of the promised landowned by the people of promise. This location near Hebron became theburial spot of Abraham and other patriarchs.

LaterOT literature often looks back on Abraham as patriarch, but only Isa.51:2 explicitly mentions Sarah in the role of cofounder of the peopleof God. She is mentioned also in the NT, along with Abraham, as theone through whom God brings the promise of a son to fulfillment (Rom.4:19; 9:9; Heb. 11:11). In 1Pet. 3:6 Sarah is put forward as amodel of wifely submission because she obeys Abraham and refers tohim as her lord (likely a reference to the Greek version of Gen.18:12).

A cultically clean, domesticated animal representing thewealth and livelihood of many in biblical times. Mentioned more thanany other animal in the Bible, sheep were critical to ancientIsrael’s rural economy, with both the animal itself and thewool it produced serving as one of the measurements of a person’sprosperity (1Sam. 25:2; Ezek. 27:18). Sheep were usefulthroughout Israel’s history, especially during the patriarchalperiod (Gen. 46:32), providing milk to drink (Deut. 32:14), wool andhide for clothing (Job 31:20; Heb. 11:37) and tent coverings (Exod.26:14), and meat to eat (Deut. 14:4). Usually, male lambs from eightdays old (Lev. 22:27) and year-old sheep served as various sacrificeofferings to God: the Passover celebration (Exod. 12:5), burntofferings (Lev. 1:10), sin offerings (Lev. 5:6), guilt offerings(Lev. 5:15), and fellowship offerings (Lev. 3:6), though thefirstborn of the flock belonged to God (Exod. 13:12). Their fat tailswere the prized portion of the sheep offered as burnt offerings (Lev.3:9).

Naturallygentle and submissive (Jer. 11:19), sheep are predisposed to becomingeasily lost or led astray (Isa. 53:6; Matt. 9:36). Because sheep aresocial animals that gather in clusters, a shepherd can easily lead alarge flock. The animal’s defenselessness against those whowould steal its coat or demand its life is pictured in Isa. 53:7. Inorder to protect sheep against predators, a shepherd provided aprotective area, or fold, which might be a cave or an enclosure ofrough stones. A unique relationship existed between shepherd andsheep: the shepherd knew each animal by name, and the sheep couldrecognize the shepherd’s voice (John 10:1–11). Sheeptherefore serve as a fitting metaphor for God’s people (Ps.100:3), suggesting that God’s people are naive and utterlydependent on their shepherd for divine guidance and protection (Matt.12:11; Luke 15:4). Jesus promises that not a single one of his sheepcan be snatched from his Father’s hand (John 10:29). Eventhough God’s sheep wander, “the Shepherd and Overseer ofyour souls” restores (1Pet. 2:25).

Ina charade, false prophets are described as donning “sheep’sclothing,” a symbol of innocence, and appearing to be membersof God’s flock (Matt. 7:15). By contrast, the true discipleswho are to go to the sheep—the lost people of Israel (9:36;10:6)—are now sent out as sheep among wolves (10:16–19),but they are aptly protected.

Jesusis represented as the Lamb of God (John 1:29; Rev. 5:6; cf. Isa.53:7), provided by God for the sins of the world, the ultimatefulfillment of the yearly Passover lamb (Exod. 12; 1Cor. 5:7).Jesus is the good shepherd of all sheep, and he most profoundlydemonstrates his commitment and love for the sheep: “The goodshepherd lays down his life for the sheep” (John 10:11).

The spectrum of meaning of “faith” and “faithfulness” may be applied both to God and to human beings. Cognates of “faith” are used interpersonally in human relationships but are used in the Bible specifically to denote the interaction between God and humanity, and human response to God. A question of theological pertinence is the degree to which one must distinguish between faith as an agent of personal belief and faith as an object of personal belief as pertaining to the relationship between God and human being.

In Hebrew the words most often translated “faith” or “faithful” are ’emunah and ’emet. In Greek the word rendered most frequently “faith” or “faithful” is pistis. In terms of their semantic domains, ’emunah and ’emet connote an objective sense of reliability (of persons) and stability (of inanimate objects); pistis conveys more of a subjective sense of placing confidence in a person, trusting in a person, or believing in a person or set of propositions. This subjective sense of pistis is correlated to considering the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence as reliable—“faithful.” Pistis likewise is used to communicate the quality of this person or belief as “committed” and “trustworthy.”

As noted, to some degree the meanings of the Hebrew and Greek terms overlap. However, certain dissimilarities are apparent as well. These observations play out in OT and NT expressions of faith. Martin Buber (1878–1965), a Jewish philosopher known for his academic work in the area of “faith,” distinguished between two types of faith: OT/Judaic faith, typified as tribal, national, and communal trust and fidelity based on the covenant; and NT/Christian faith, characterized as individual persuasion or belief in something.

Old Testament

Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.

Faithfulness as an attribute of God. Yahweh is presented in the OT as faithful to his promises, as faithfulness is a part of his very being. In the Torah the Israelites are reminded, “The Lord your God is God; he is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). Not only is God presented as keeping his covenant, but also the prophet Hosea calls God “the faithful Holy One” (Hos. 11:12). Isaiah likewise pre-sents faithfulness as an attribute of God (Isa. 49:7). The people can rest assured, for God is unchanging and reliable.

The psalmist speaks of Yahweh as the faithful God: “You have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God” (Ps. 31:5 NRSV); “he remains faithful forever” (Ps. 146:6). The translation “faithful” is warranted in these instances in the psalms. Its connotations are “truth” and “trustworthiness.” Yahweh is ascribed divine honor by his people recognizing and acknowledging his faithfulness and trustworthiness, and by responding to it in obedience as the people of God.

The faith of Abraham. Abraham’s (Abram’s) faith is used in the Bible as an example (Rom. 4:12; Gal. 3:6–9) in the sense that Abraham trusted God’s faithfulness in a way unequaled by other characters in the OT. Abraham lived in Mesopotamia when God spoke to him in a vision and told him that his descendants would be as innumerable as the stars in the sky (Gen. 15:1–5). Abraham trusted that God would be faithful to keep his promise despite insurmountable obstacles. This trust was credited to Abraham as righteousness (15:6). God subsequently initiated a covenant with Abraham (15:7–21).

Abraham’s life was characterized by his obedience to God and by his considering God to be faithful, something well noted by the early church (Heb. 11:8–11, 17–19) and used as an example of faith in the Christian walk (12:1). The three best-known examples of Abraham’s obedience and hence trust in God’s faithfulness are found consecutively in the departure from his homeland, the birth of his son Isaac, and the offering of Isaac as a sacrifice.

When God said to Abraham, “Go from your country, your people and your father’s household to the land I will show you” (Gen. 12:1), Abraham went as commanded (12:4). He obeyed despite his cultural disposition toward staying in the area of his ancestry and kin, and he went without knowledge of an appointed destination. Elderly and childless (12:7, 11–12), Abraham considered offspring to be impossible. However, Abraham trusted that God would be able to raise offspring for him, believing that he would become a great nation (12:2). His offspring Isaac was later reminded of the obedience of Abraham (26:5). Abraham’s greatest challenge of trust in God’s faithful provision came when he was commanded to offer his son Isaac as a burnt offering (22:2). He was commended for fearing God without reservation (22:12).

When the priest and initial leader of the Maccabean revolt, Mattathias, gave his farewell speech to his sons as he faced death in 166 BC, he placed his deeds along the lines of biblical heroes of faith such as Abraham. With likely reference to Abraham offering Isaac, he said, “Was not Abraham found faithful when tested, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness?” (1Macc. 2:52 NRSV). The early church likewise used this test in Abraham’s life as an example of his faithfulness, while at the same time claiming that the source for this faithfulness was found in faith—faith in God’s faithful provision (Heb. 11:17).

Faithfulness to the covenant. Faithfulness embodies the very core of the covenant relationship. God seeks a love relationship with humanity expressed in initiating his covenant. He is described as “abounding in love and faithfulness” (Exod. 34:6). His covenant love (Heb. khesed) is closely correlated to his faithfulness: “He is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love” (Deut. 7:9). Throughout the OT, Yahweh is shown as loyal to his covenant. Yahweh’s righteousness is seen in his faithfulness in keeping the covenant even when his people were disloyal and did not acknowledge his faithfulness. He delivered his people out of Egypt because of his covenant love and righteousness, as the psalmist declared: “But from everlasting to everlasting the Lord’s love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their children’s children—with those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts” (Ps. 103:17–18). He delivered them out of their subsequent exile, declaring them righteous because their repentant hearts trusted in his faithfulness and sought to obey his covenant. Yahweh said, “If I have not made my covenant with day and night and established the laws of heaven and earth, then I will reject the descendants of Jacob and David my servant and will not choose one of his sons to rule over the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes and have compassion on them” (Jer. 33:25–26).

God’s people, however, were expected to reciprocate and trust his faithfulness (1Chron. 16:15–16). When God met with Moses on Mount Sinai, he instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to obey the commands fully and to keep the covenant. It was only then that they would be a treasured possession, a holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6). The Israelites were expected to follow in obedience and thus reciprocate God’s faithfulness. The people of Israel often failed, but David and other godly people chose to be faithful to God and walk in his truth (Ps. 119:30; Heb. 11:4–38).

Faith counted as righteousness. Whereas faith is used throughout the OT in reference to God’s faithfulness and loyalty, it is used in Hab. 2:4 as pertaining to the faith of the righteous: “But the righteous will live by his faith” (NASB). In Rom. 1:17 Paul specifies, “For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith.’ ” He notes that God’s righteousness, even as revealed within OT promises, is by faith (“faith to faith,” or “faith, through and through”). By the parameters “from faith to faith,” Paul intends to exclude works of righteousness, a theme that he carries consistently in the first four chapters of Romans. Justification, for Habakkuk’s hearers, meant faithfulness, a single-minded focus on Yahweh to meet life’s essential needs. For Paul, salvation by way of justification meant that reliance upon Christ alone was foundational. In Pauline theology, faith is a thread connecting the old covenant with the new covenant.

New Testament

Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.

In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:28–29).

In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).

Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph. 2:8).

In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).

In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1Pet. 1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).

Faith is rarely addressed in the book of Revelation. Rather, faithfulness is the objective. Christ is described as the faithful and true witness (Rev. 1:5; 3:14), the perfect example for believers. One of the believers in Asia Minor, Antipas, is identified as Christ’s witness and faithful one (2:13). Those believers who, like Antipas, are faithful unto death, are called “overcomers” (2:10, 26). The faithless are thrown into the lake of fire, which represents the second death (21:8).

Faith and salvation. The role of faith in salvation is often hotly debated. Views are polarized between Christ as the object of faith and as the subject of faith. These views are designated as an objective genitive (faith in Christ), also known as an anthropological view, and a subjective genitive (the faithfulness of Christ), also known as a christological view. Thus, for example, Rom. 3:22 can be translated as “This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe” (cf. NRSV) or as “This righteousness from God comes through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ for all who believe” (cf. NET). In the latter translation the faithfulness of Christ is seen as the agent of salvation.

In Eph. 2:8 the phrase “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith,” points to faith as instrumental in salvation. However, the source of that faith is not made clear. Does God provide the faith required to be saved, and thus the event is out of the hands of humanity? Or does salvation require a response from human beings in the form of faith—that is, trust?

In the Letter to the Romans, Paul indicates a correlation between grace and faith (Rom. 4:16; 5:1–2), and he shows that Abraham’s faith, his belief and unwavering hope in God’s faithfulness, was credited to him as righteousness (4:18–22). In the new covenant this righteousness likewise is credited to those who believe in God (4:23–24).

Faith and works. In Eph. 2:8–10 works are described as an outflow of the faith of believers: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast. For we are God’s handiwork, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.”

Faith and works are also related in the letter of James, where works appear to be a prerequisite of faith, for faith without works is dead (2:26). While at first sight this might appear to contradict a Pauline understanding of faith and works (Rom. 3:19–5:1; Gal. 2:15–3:24), James and Paul use the word “works” differently. Paul uses it in terms of “obedience to the law,” something obsolete as a requirement in the new covenant. James, however, writes with regard to works of charity, not works of obedience to Jewish ritualistic law. Authentic faith, then, shows the evidence of good works—charity, the fruit of the Spirit.

Faith and the Church

Whereas baptism was a public initiation rite into the first-century Christian community, it was faith in Christ Jesus that was understood as establishing one’s membership in the family of God (Gal. 3:26). This membership was available to both Jews and Gentiles. Faith, the shared belief system in and confession of Jesus’ salvific work, became the common denominator in the Christian community. In Ephesians, faith is identified as one of the unifying elements of the church (Eph. 4:5). The prayer of faith heals the sick person in the church, another unifying element of applying faith (James 5:13–15).

Faith as a spiritual gift. According to the apostle Paul, the gift of faith is closely related to the life and functioning of the church (1Cor. 12:9). Mentioned among other gifts, or charismata (12:4), this aspect of faith is that benefit of salvation with which certain members of the church are graced and is used for the common good (12:7). This faith, then, is understood as edifying the Christian community at large rather than just the individual believer.

Faith and the Christian life. Christians are described as living by faith (2Cor. 5:7). Not only does faith lead people to Christ, but also Christ subsequently dwells in believers’ hearts through faith (Eph. 3:17). This Christian faith is subject to testing (James 1:2).

Faith is presented by Paul as present at different levels of growth among believers. Some Christians are weak in faith (Rom. 14:1), whereas others are strong in faith (15:1). Faith can differ in its strength of conviction (4:20–22; 14:5). It is presented as something that can grow (2Cor. 10:15).

Faith is grouped among gifts and virtues. Lifted out together with hope and love, faith is mentioned among gifts that edify believers in the church (1Cor. 13:13). Likewise, faith is mentioned as a Christian virtue among the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).

The Bible has much to say about works, and an understandingof the topic is important because works play a role in mostreligions. In the most generic sense, “works” refers tothe products or activities of human moral agents in the context ofreligious discussion. God’s works are frequently mentioned inScripture, and they are always good. His works include creation (Gen.2:2–3; Isa. 40:28; 42:5), sustenance of the earth (Ps. 104;Heb. 1:3), and redemption (Exod. 6:6; Ps. 111:9; Rom. 8:23). Humanworks, therefore, should be in alignment with God’s works,though obviously of a different sort. Works in the Bible usuallyreflect a moral polarity: good or evil, righteous or unrighteous,just or unjust. The context of the passage often determines the moralcharacter of the works (e.g., Isa. 3:10–11; 2Cor. 11:15).

Importantquestions follow from the existence of works and their moral quality.Do good works merit God’s favor or please him? Can good workssave at the time of God’s judgment? When people asked Jesus,“What must we do to do the works God requires?” heanswered, “The work of God is this: to believe in the one hehas sent” (John 6:28–29). Without faith it is impossibleto please God (Heb. 11:6). The people from the OT commended in Heb.11 did their works in the precondition of faith. Explicitly in the NTand often implicitly in the OT, faith is the condition for truly goodworks. God elects out of his mercy, not out of human works (Rom.9:12, 16; Titus 3:5; cf. Rom. 11:2). Works not done in faith, even ifconsidered “good” by human standards, are not commendableto God, since all humankind is under sin (Rom. 3:9) and no person isrighteous or does good (Rom. 3:10–18; cf. Isa. 64:6). Workscannot save; salvation is a gift to be received by faith (Eph. 2:8–9;2Tim. 1:9; cf. Rom. 4:2–6). Even works of the Mosaic laware not salvific (Rom. 3:20, 27–28; Gal. 2:16; 3:2; 5:4). Goodworks follow from faith (2Cor. 9:8; Eph. 2:10; 1Thess.1:3; James 2:18, 22; cf. Acts 26:20). The works of those who havefaith will be judged, but this judgment appears to be related torewards, not salvation (Matt. 16:27; Rom. 2:6; 2Cor. 5:10; cf.Rom. 14:10; 1Cor. 3:13–15).

OldTestament

Preconditionsto love. Accordingto the OT, three preconditions must exist for us to know what itmeans to love.

First,we have the capacity for relationships because we are made in thelikeness of a personal God. God created us to reciprocate love backto him, in a relationship of mutual love.

Second,the true meaning of love depends on a true understanding of God,whose love causes him to pursue human beings even though their heartshave turned away from him for other substitute “loves.”This second point assumes that human beings still love, but they doso in a way distorted by sin. Sin causes human beings to live theirlives as though God did not exist. However, God in his mercy haschosen to intervene through his redemptive acts in history andthrough revelatory speech in order to deliver people from theblindness and corruption of sin. His pursuit of his unfaithful sonsand daughters gives us a picture of what true love looks like.

Third,God’s pursuit of human beings in history was by means ofelection and the establishment of a covenant. God chose to makehimself known to a particular people, those who would descend fromAbraham. God called Abraham to leave his country and go to a newplace that he would inherit as a new homeland, where his descendantswould be blessed (Gen. 12:1–3; 15; 17). God’s promise toAbraham took the form of an everlasting covenant, by which heguaranteed that he would fulfill what he had promised. He would bethe God of Abraham’s descendants, and they would be his people.They would receive the land of Canaan as an inheritance (17:6–8).In response, Abraham’s descendants were to obey God’scovenant by circumcising their male children (17:9–14). Thiscovenant would depend not on human faithfulness but on God’sfaithfulness. God would redeem this people to be his own specialpeople.

Severalgenerations later, God addressed the people through Moses, tellingthem that he chose them for no other reason than that he loved them(Deut. 7:7–8). Through Moses, God freed the people from theirslavery in Egypt and gave them the law. The law told them how to liveholy lives in response to God. It also included the provisions foratonement through the sacrificial system. In short, loving Godinvolved obeying his statutes.

Lovein wisdom books.The OT wisdom books Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes give us furtherinsight into the meaning of love. Proverbs exhorts its readers,“Above all else, guard your heart, for everything you do flowsfrom it” (4:23). One’s affections are the gateway to theallegiances of one’s heart. Once one’s affections havebeen hijacked by sinful passions, allegiance to God is subjugated toanother “master.” To the degree that sin usurps thethrone of the heart, it will steer the course of one’s actions(i.e., one’s “path”).

Inthe book of Job, Satan is convinced that Job serves God only becauseGod blesses Job, so Satan challenges God to let him afflict Job.Satan insists that if God removes Job’s blessings, Job willcurse God to his face (1:10–12). When God agrees to remove thehedge of protection and allows Job to suffer, the depth of Job’slove for God is vindicated. Although perplexed that God would allowhim to endure such suffering, he endures without forsaking God. Jobloved the giver more than his gifts, so his love did not turn tohatred when the gifts of God were removed.

Inthe book of Ecclesiastes, Qoheleth (the Teacher) reflects honestly onthe many vain pursuits and unexplainable dissonances thatcharacterize life “under the sun.” Only faith-filled lovefor God can enable one to live each moment of life with joy insteadof striving to find meaning in “under the sun” pursuits.This love chooses to trust the inscrutable wisdom of God in the faceof life’s many enigmas, uncertainties, and sufferings. One cando this honestly because of the belief that God’s just ruleover the affairs of the universe will be vindicated at the future dayof judgment (Eccles. 12:14).

Marriagemetaphor.The Bible uses the metaphor of marriage to describe God’scovenant relationship with his people (Isa. 54:5–8). Thismetaphor captures the intimate character of the relationship that Goddesires to have with his people. Marriage is the most intimate humanrelationship in two ways. First, marriage is a relationship in whichknowledge is the most intimate. A spouse can see many of the flawsthat are hidden from others. Thus, each spouse must accept and lovethe other for who that person is, in spite of his or herimperfections. Second, the depth and passion of the expressions oflove are most intimate in marriage. Consequently, there is no greaterpain than that caused by unfaithfulness to this covenant.

Sadly,as the story of the OT unfolds, God’s “wife”betrays him. How so? His people worship idols in their hearts (Ezek.14:1–5). Because God is jealous for the exclusive love of hispeople, idolatry is spiritual unfaithfulness. God wants both theallegiance and the affection of their hearts to be reservedexclusively for him. The people continue the formalities of worship,but their hearts have turned away from God. The book of Hoseaillustrates the sense of betrayal that God feels when his people arespiritually unfaithful. God tells Hosea to marry a woman who will beunfaithful to him. Subsequently, she leaves Hosea for one lover afteranother. This story is intended to give God’s people a vividpicture of how painful their spiritual betrayal of him is. His heartis crushed by the rebellious and idolatrous condition of his people.Hosea’s wife ends up on the market as a prostitute, and Godtells him to buy her back and love her again.

NewTestament

Thestory of God’s love for his people is expanded by what theFather did centuries later when he sent Jesus to pay the ransom forthe sins of his people so that they might be healed of theirrebellion and receive eternal life (John 3:16; 17:24). The death andresurrection of Christ were necessary because sin had to be atonedfor. This love is a free gift that comes to the one who trusts inChrist for forgiveness of sin and a new heart. The new heart inclinesone to please God. The gift of the Spirit enables one to bear the“fruit” of love (Gal. 5:22–23). As Abraham’sengrafted children (Gal. 3:7), believers are called by God to live aspilgrims on their way to a heavenly promised land (Heb. 11:9–10;1Pet. 2:11).

Christmodeled genuine love by serving us (Mark 10:42–45). His loveshould motivate us and enable us to practice sacrificial servicetoward others (Matt. 22:39; 1John 3:16). It should also causeus to practice forbearance, long-suffering, and forgiveness towardthose who wrong us (Matt. 18:21–35). It should cause us torepay evil with good (Rom. 12:14). Our love for truth should motivateus to act in the best interests of others (1Cor. 13:4–8)in the hope that they may become reconciled to God (2Tim.2:24–26).

Architecture is the technology and the art of design andconstruction. The technology of architecture includes anunderstanding of mathematical and engineering principles; the art ofarchitecture focuses attention on interest and beauty in design. Thecreative imagination of the architect is constantly considering howto artfully manage form and function in the design and constructionprocess.

Architectureand the Bible

Theterm “architecture” does not occur in most Englishtranslations of the Bible. There is, however, evidence of andreference to the architectural activity of God’s people. Inaddition, Israel and the church were contextualized in significantarchitectural periods (Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, and Roman), so themajor empires of the biblical period often influenced the design andconstruction of cities, temples, and structures referenced in thebiblical text. Architecture offers biblical studies a way to betterunderstand the historical intentions of the Bible. By means ofarchitectural investigation, the history and the heritage of pastcivilizations are illuminated. As a result, our reading of thebiblical text is enhanced.

Whenwe investigate the biblical text with attention to the technology andart of architecture, two perspectives emerge. First, architecturedraws our attention to the background of the biblical text. Incertain biblical texts we learn about the design and the constructionthat took place in Egypt, Assyria, and Palestine during majorbiblical events. For example, the patriarchal and Mosaic periodsoccurred during times of expansion and development in the Eighteenthto Twentieth Dynasties of Egypt (i.e., New Kingdom, sixteenth toeleventh centuries BC). For these periods, we gain knowledge aboutcapital relocations along with temple and pyramid constructions. Welearn that during the conquest, Israel took over existing Canaanitecities in keeping with the Mosaic policies. The architecture ofPalestine enables us to better understand the form and function ofthese infrastructures.

Second,architecture draws our attention to the theological implications ofthe form and function of structures designed by God. In keeping withthe scope of architecture, we are forced to understand that what Goddesigned for altars, the ark, the tabernacle, and the temples of thepast and the future included more than just the functionalrequirements of a nation’s religious system. The interpreter ofthe biblical text must consider how the design of these structureselicits response and communicates meaning. These structures are alsowindows on the social, political, and economic aspects of theIsraelite nation.

OldTestament

Citiesand fortifications.The biblical rec­ord makes reference to architectural structures,materials, and furnishings. Cities are referenced frequentlythroughout the OT canon. The city is obviously the context forarchitectural expression. The cities of the Bible are not describedin extensive detail. We learn that Cain was a city builder who namedhis work after his son Enoch. The architectural feature of citiesmentioned most often is the city gates (Gen. 19:1; 23:10, 18; Deut.17:5; Josh. 2:5; 7:5; 20:4; Judg. 5:8). This was an important placefor city life and activity (Gen. 23:1; Prov. 31:31). There was alsosinister activity at city gates. Abner, for example, was killed inthe city gate (2 Sam. 3:22–30). In addition, executionsfor covenant violations were carried out at the city gate (Deut.17:5). There was more than one city gate, as we learn from thepostexilic construction activity of Ezra and Nehemiah.

Withinthe city there was a strong tower. The people of Babel usedthoroughly baked bricks instead of stone and tar for mortar in orderto build the city and the tower that was designed to reach to theheavens (Gen. 11:3–4). A city tower functioned as a place ofrefuge for the people within the city limits (Judg. 9:49–51).

Citieswere protected by a wall system (Lev. 25:29) that also provided spacefor housing (Josh. 2:15). The conquest of Jericho recounts thefamiliar defeat of that city by the very unconventional destructionof its walls (Josh. 6:20). A city square is another feature of thecity architecture (Judg. 19:15–17) that served the public needsof the community.

Thebiblical descriptions of Jerusalem offer a measure of insight intoits architecture. During the rebuilding process in the postexilicperiod, Nehemiah comments on both the construction and the buildingmaterials (Neh. 2:8; 13:31; cf. Ezra 6:4) and the spacious nature ofthe city (Neh. 7:4). From another perspective, the psalmist comments,“Jerusalem is built like a city that is closely compactedtogether” (Ps. 122:3).

Beyondthese textual details we learn through the writings of the prophetsthat cities are the subject of God’s wrath for covenantviolation (Jer. 6:6; Hos. 11:6; Mic. 5:11). Despite this, the nationof Israel is not left without the hope of restoration. The prophetsalso anticipated the return of the people along with the restorationof the city infrastructure (Amos 9:14; Mal. 1:4).

Thetemple and sacred structures.Theother architectural features referenced by the writers of Scriptureinclude altars, the tabernacle, the tent of meeting, and the temple.The tent and the tabernacle were also outfitted with unique furnitureitems described in detail and expertly crafted. The constructionprojects of Solomon are detailed in 1 Kings 5–7. Solomon,like David, pursued his architectural ambitions. The book of Ezekielgives extensive architectural detail for the construction of a futuretemple in which God will reign and rule (Ezek. 40–48).

Thetemple and royal residences were made of stone with cedar roofing.The chamber buildings that surrounded the temple were three storieshigh. The interior walls and ceilings were lined with cedar to coverall the stone (1 Kings 6:1–10). In all the constructiondetails for the temple, the text does not elaborate on architecturalstyle. Perhaps the builders were influenced to some degree by thestyles of the major periods.

Whatare the theological implications related to the form and function ofthe sacred structures in the biblical material? The first is that Godis the ultimate designer of Israel’s architecture. God’ssignature work certainly is not the tabernacle or the Solomonictemple, but rather the created realm. The beauty and the complexitiesof the created world continue to draw attention to God’s beautyand intelligence. As the psalmist declares, the creation, which Goddesigned, is a constant source of praise (Ps. 19).

God’sskill and artistic beauty as a master architect are reflected also inthe revelation of his plans for the sacred structures of Israel tothe nation’s artisans. The skill that the artisans manifestedin the construction process was also a gift from God (Exod. 35:35;2 Chron. 2:14).

Thestructures designed by God for construction were primarily for him.This is understandable because the patriarchal and Mosaic periodsincluded long desert pilgrimages and the related tent dwelling.References to homes and houses in the book of Leviticus are not aboutdesign and construction but about function. The domestic home must befree of mildew (Lev. 14:34–41) and thus clean according to thestandards of the law. The construction of Davidic and Solomonic homesis given attention in Scripture (2 Sam. 5:11; 7:1; 1 Kings7:1–12).

Thetabernacle and the temple were divine residences (Exod. 30:6; 40:34;2 Sam. 7:5; 1 Kings 8:11). For this reason, the design andfunction of each structure reflected the glorious worth of God andreminded the nation of its own uncleanness. Beyond the structures oftemple and tabernacle, the city of Jerusalem was privileged to be theresting place of the “Name” (i.e., presence) of the Lord(2 Chron. 6:5–6) and to have David as the chosen ruler(2 Chron. 6:34).

Thehistory of Israel reveals that the sustainability of these sacredstructures was influenced by physical and spiritual factors. Godoccupied the structures or met with Israel at these sacred places aslong as Israel conformed to the terms of the Mosaic covenant (1 Sam.4:21; 1 Kings 9:6–9). During the monarchy, kings whodeparted from Torah would strip the temple to pay tribute to foreignoverlords (2 Kings 24:13) or would modify the function of thestructure to accommodate the worship of foreign gods (see 2 Kings23). Although there were periodic times of rebuilding the sacredstructures, sustainability was short lived. The ideology of thesacred structures anticipates a future time when their originalfunction will be replaced with the opportunity to live in God’spresence forever.

NewTestament

TheNT refers only rarely to architects or architecture. Hebrews 11:10speaks of God as the “architect [technitēs] and builder”of the heavenly Jerusalem. Paul refers to the church as the temple ofGod. Jesus Christ is the foundation, and Christian leaders arebuilding upon that foundation with either gold, silver, and costlystones or wood, hay, and straw (1 Cor. 3:10–17; cf. 6:19;2 Cor. 6:16).

Interms of physical buildings, the church of the NT was a house church.During the time of Christ the significant architectural structureswere the temple and synagogues. Herod the Great was the major builderof the time, whose impressive temple dominated the landscape of theJerusalem area. Although the synagogue was a central structure duringthe life of Christ and the early church, function is emphasized overform in the biblical material. The synagogue was a place for prayer,Scripture study, and the administration of justice (Luke 4:16–30;Acts 13:15; 14:1).

Thefocus of the NT is also on the church’s function instead of itsarchitectural form. The church, however, prospered and grew in thecontext of a significant Hellenistic architectural period (300 BC toAD 300). In this period the Seleucids were responsible forestablishing large Greek cities across western and central Asia. Theprimary construction material continued to be the mud-brick, whichresulted in rapidly decaying buildings. Although cities continued tobe laid out in a grid format, a more dynamic, hilly format was beingintroduced. The homes in these cities often were built withcourtyards like ones in Mesopotamia and Egypt. The temples of theHellenistic period were designed with landscaping and terracing,along with porticoed enclosures and stairways.

Thebook of Revelation closes the canon with extensive detail about thenew city of Jerusalem, which God will design and build (Rev. 21) andwhich will function to serve his sovereign purposes as creator andredeemer.

The spectrum of meaning of “faith” and “faithfulness” may be applied both to God and to human beings. Cognates of “faith” are used interpersonally in human relationships but are used in the Bible specifically to denote the interaction between God and humanity, and human response to God. A question of theological pertinence is the degree to which one must distinguish between faith as an agent of personal belief and faith as an object of personal belief as pertaining to the relationship between God and human being.

In Hebrew the words most often translated “faith” or “faithful” are ’emunah and ’emet. In Greek the word rendered most frequently “faith” or “faithful” is pistis. In terms of their semantic domains, ’emunah and ’emet connote an objective sense of reliability (of persons) and stability (of inanimate objects); pistis conveys more of a subjective sense of placing confidence in a person, trusting in a person, or believing in a person or set of propositions. This subjective sense of pistis is correlated to considering the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence as reliable—“faithful.” Pistis likewise is used to communicate the quality of this person or belief as “committed” and “trustworthy.”

As noted, to some degree the meanings of the Hebrew and Greek terms overlap. However, certain dissimilarities are apparent as well. These observations play out in OT and NT expressions of faith. Martin Buber (1878–1965), a Jewish philosopher known for his academic work in the area of “faith,” distinguished between two types of faith: OT/Judaic faith, typified as tribal, national, and communal trust and fidelity based on the covenant; and NT/Christian faith, characterized as individual persuasion or belief in something.

Old Testament

Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.

Faithfulness as an attribute of God. Yahweh is presented in the OT as faithful to his promises, as faithfulness is a part of his very being. In the Torah the Israelites are reminded, “The Lord your God is God; he is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). Not only is God presented as keeping his covenant, but also the prophet Hosea calls God “the faithful Holy One” (Hos. 11:12). Isaiah likewise pre-sents faithfulness as an attribute of God (Isa. 49:7). The people can rest assured, for God is unchanging and reliable.

The psalmist speaks of Yahweh as the faithful God: “You have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God” (Ps. 31:5 NRSV); “he remains faithful forever” (Ps. 146:6). The translation “faithful” is warranted in these instances in the psalms. Its connotations are “truth” and “trustworthiness.” Yahweh is ascribed divine honor by his people recognizing and acknowledging his faithfulness and trustworthiness, and by responding to it in obedience as the people of God.

The faith of Abraham. Abraham’s (Abram’s) faith is used in the Bible as an example (Rom. 4:12; Gal. 3:6–9) in the sense that Abraham trusted God’s faithfulness in a way unequaled by other characters in the OT. Abraham lived in Mesopotamia when God spoke to him in a vision and told him that his descendants would be as innumerable as the stars in the sky (Gen. 15:1–5). Abraham trusted that God would be faithful to keep his promise despite insurmountable obstacles. This trust was credited to Abraham as righteousness (15:6). God subsequently initiated a covenant with Abraham (15:7–21).

Abraham’s life was characterized by his obedience to God and by his considering God to be faithful, something well noted by the early church (Heb. 11:8–11, 17–19) and used as an example of faith in the Christian walk (12:1). The three best-known examples of Abraham’s obedience and hence trust in God’s faithfulness are found consecutively in the departure from his homeland, the birth of his son Isaac, and the offering of Isaac as a sacrifice.

When God said to Abraham, “Go from your country, your people and your father’s household to the land I will show you” (Gen. 12:1), Abraham went as commanded (12:4). He obeyed despite his cultural disposition toward staying in the area of his ancestry and kin, and he went without knowledge of an appointed destination. Elderly and childless (12:7, 11–12), Abraham considered offspring to be impossible. However, Abraham trusted that God would be able to raise offspring for him, believing that he would become a great nation (12:2). His offspring Isaac was later reminded of the obedience of Abraham (26:5). Abraham’s greatest challenge of trust in God’s faithful provision came when he was commanded to offer his son Isaac as a burnt offering (22:2). He was commended for fearing God without reservation (22:12).

When the priest and initial leader of the Maccabean revolt, Mattathias, gave his farewell speech to his sons as he faced death in 166 BC, he placed his deeds along the lines of biblical heroes of faith such as Abraham. With likely reference to Abraham offering Isaac, he said, “Was not Abraham found faithful when tested, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness?” (1Macc. 2:52 NRSV). The early church likewise used this test in Abraham’s life as an example of his faithfulness, while at the same time claiming that the source for this faithfulness was found in faith—faith in God’s faithful provision (Heb. 11:17).

Faithfulness to the covenant. Faithfulness embodies the very core of the covenant relationship. God seeks a love relationship with humanity expressed in initiating his covenant. He is described as “abounding in love and faithfulness” (Exod. 34:6). His covenant love (Heb. khesed) is closely correlated to his faithfulness: “He is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love” (Deut. 7:9). Throughout the OT, Yahweh is shown as loyal to his covenant. Yahweh’s righteousness is seen in his faithfulness in keeping the covenant even when his people were disloyal and did not acknowledge his faithfulness. He delivered his people out of Egypt because of his covenant love and righteousness, as the psalmist declared: “But from everlasting to everlasting the Lord’s love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their children’s children—with those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts” (Ps. 103:17–18). He delivered them out of their subsequent exile, declaring them righteous because their repentant hearts trusted in his faithfulness and sought to obey his covenant. Yahweh said, “If I have not made my covenant with day and night and established the laws of heaven and earth, then I will reject the descendants of Jacob and David my servant and will not choose one of his sons to rule over the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes and have compassion on them” (Jer. 33:25–26).

God’s people, however, were expected to reciprocate and trust his faithfulness (1Chron. 16:15–16). When God met with Moses on Mount Sinai, he instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to obey the commands fully and to keep the covenant. It was only then that they would be a treasured possession, a holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6). The Israelites were expected to follow in obedience and thus reciprocate God’s faithfulness. The people of Israel often failed, but David and other godly people chose to be faithful to God and walk in his truth (Ps. 119:30; Heb. 11:4–38).

Faith counted as righteousness. Whereas faith is used throughout the OT in reference to God’s faithfulness and loyalty, it is used in Hab. 2:4 as pertaining to the faith of the righteous: “But the righteous will live by his faith” (NASB). In Rom. 1:17 Paul specifies, “For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith.’ ” He notes that God’s righteousness, even as revealed within OT promises, is by faith (“faith to faith,” or “faith, through and through”). By the parameters “from faith to faith,” Paul intends to exclude works of righteousness, a theme that he carries consistently in the first four chapters of Romans. Justification, for Habakkuk’s hearers, meant faithfulness, a single-minded focus on Yahweh to meet life’s essential needs. For Paul, salvation by way of justification meant that reliance upon Christ alone was foundational. In Pauline theology, faith is a thread connecting the old covenant with the new covenant.

New Testament

Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.

In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:28–29).

In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).

Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph. 2:8).

In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).

In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1Pet. 1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).

Faith is rarely addressed in the book of Revelation. Rather, faithfulness is the objective. Christ is described as the faithful and true witness (Rev. 1:5; 3:14), the perfect example for believers. One of the believers in Asia Minor, Antipas, is identified as Christ’s witness and faithful one (2:13). Those believers who, like Antipas, are faithful unto death, are called “overcomers” (2:10, 26). The faithless are thrown into the lake of fire, which represents the second death (21:8).

Faith and salvation. The role of faith in salvation is often hotly debated. Views are polarized between Christ as the object of faith and as the subject of faith. These views are designated as an objective genitive (faith in Christ), also known as an anthropological view, and a subjective genitive (the faithfulness of Christ), also known as a christological view. Thus, for example, Rom. 3:22 can be translated as “This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe” (cf. NRSV) or as “This righteousness from God comes through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ for all who believe” (cf. NET). In the latter translation the faithfulness of Christ is seen as the agent of salvation.

In Eph. 2:8 the phrase “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith,” points to faith as instrumental in salvation. However, the source of that faith is not made clear. Does God provide the faith required to be saved, and thus the event is out of the hands of humanity? Or does salvation require a response from human beings in the form of faith—that is, trust?

In the Letter to the Romans, Paul indicates a correlation between grace and faith (Rom. 4:16; 5:1–2), and he shows that Abraham’s faith, his belief and unwavering hope in God’s faithfulness, was credited to him as righteousness (4:18–22). In the new covenant this righteousness likewise is credited to those who believe in God (4:23–24).

Faith and works. In Eph. 2:8–10 works are described as an outflow of the faith of believers: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast. For we are God’s handiwork, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.”

Faith and works are also related in the letter of James, where works appear to be a prerequisite of faith, for faith without works is dead (2:26). While at first sight this might appear to contradict a Pauline understanding of faith and works (Rom. 3:19–5:1; Gal. 2:15–3:24), James and Paul use the word “works” differently. Paul uses it in terms of “obedience to the law,” something obsolete as a requirement in the new covenant. James, however, writes with regard to works of charity, not works of obedience to Jewish ritualistic law. Authentic faith, then, shows the evidence of good works—charity, the fruit of the Spirit.

Faith and the Church

Whereas baptism was a public initiation rite into the first-century Christian community, it was faith in Christ Jesus that was understood as establishing one’s membership in the family of God (Gal. 3:26). This membership was available to both Jews and Gentiles. Faith, the shared belief system in and confession of Jesus’ salvific work, became the common denominator in the Christian community. In Ephesians, faith is identified as one of the unifying elements of the church (Eph. 4:5). The prayer of faith heals the sick person in the church, another unifying element of applying faith (James 5:13–15).

Faith as a spiritual gift. According to the apostle Paul, the gift of faith is closely related to the life and functioning of the church (1Cor. 12:9). Mentioned among other gifts, or charismata (12:4), this aspect of faith is that benefit of salvation with which certain members of the church are graced and is used for the common good (12:7). This faith, then, is understood as edifying the Christian community at large rather than just the individual believer.

Faith and the Christian life. Christians are described as living by faith (2Cor. 5:7). Not only does faith lead people to Christ, but also Christ subsequently dwells in believers’ hearts through faith (Eph. 3:17). This Christian faith is subject to testing (James 1:2).

Faith is presented by Paul as present at different levels of growth among believers. Some Christians are weak in faith (Rom. 14:1), whereas others are strong in faith (15:1). Faith can differ in its strength of conviction (4:20–22; 14:5). It is presented as something that can grow (2Cor. 10:15).

Faith is grouped among gifts and virtues. Lifted out together with hope and love, faith is mentioned among gifts that edify believers in the church (1Cor. 13:13). Likewise, faith is mentioned as a Christian virtue among the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).

Divorce involves the separation of a husband and a wife andthe management of children and property, and it raises the questionof the right to remarry.

Accordingto Deut. 24:1–4, a man was permitted to divorce his wife if hefound in her anything “indecent” (’erwat dabar,lit., “nakedness of a thing,” referring to sexualimpropriety; cf. Lev. 18:6–19; 20:11, 17–21; 1Sam.20:30 NRSV). The marriage could be restored, but only if the womanhad not married anyone else in the meantime.

Therabbis of Jesus’ day debated this law vigorously. RabbiHillel’s supporters read “indecent thing” as“anything or obscenity.” So they argued for divorce onthe grounds of “any cause” and proceeded to list thingssuch as burning food or developing wrinkles as sufficient cause for aman to divorce his wife. Rabbi Shammai’s school understood thepassage to refer only to sexual sin.

SomePharisees put this question to Jesus in Matt. 19:1–12. Jesusasserted, “What God has joined together, let no one separate”(v.6). This they countered with the specifics from Deut. 24.Jesus affirmed that divorce was God’s way of limiting thedamage caused by “hardness of heart” (ESV, NASB). He thenruled in favor of the view that only the sexual violation of themarriage can justify a man divorcing his wife (Matt.19:9). Sucha divorce gives the innocent party the right to remarry. For a man todivorce his wife while the marriage is sexually pure makes anysubsequent marriage an act of adultery, for which he is responsible.Even Jesus’ own disciples were shocked by this statement(v.10).

Itis significant that under biblical law, the innocent party in theevent of adultery, whether husband or wife, was free to remarry.

Asecond divorce law is found in the OT at Exod. 21:7–11. Thislaw concerns the rights of a female slave-concubine. The dignity ofsuch a female slave was to be protected under God’s covenantwith Israel. She could not be sold, nor could she be freed in theseventh year, as a male slave would be (Exod. 21:1–6). If theman later wanted to separate from her, he would have to let her gofree. This would be the equivalent of a certificate of divorce for afree woman. It is noteworthy that where the slave was purchased as aconcubine for a son, she was to have “the rights of a daughter”(Exod. 21:9). She had the right to go free if he married another wifeand deprived her of food and clothing or ceased to make love to her.A good example is the experience of Sarai’s slave Hagar (Gen.16; 21:9–21).

Itis difficult to know how to apply this case to the overall biblicalteaching on divorce and to different cultural circ*mstances. Thiscase, though problematic, does speak to modern situations of domesticabuse and desertion (cf. 1Cor. 7:10–13).

Athird case concerns mixed marriage between a Christian and anon-Christian. A Christian is not to marry a non-Christian (2Cor.6:14–16; cf. Deut. 7:1–7; Ezra 9). In 1Cor. 7:12–16Paul addresses this issue. He does so in light of the old covenantlaw that required God’s people to marry within the community ofIsrael. Circ*mstances had changed significantly with the coming ofthe new covenant. God’s people are now identified by faith inChrist, not ethnicity. Paul’s ruling here addresses one of twopossible situations. Either the couple married as non-Christians andonly one of them later converted, or two Christians married and oneof them later abandoned the faith.

Fora Jewish Christian, the first question was whether the marriageshould continue or whether, on the precedent of Ezra 9, it should beterminated. Under the old covenant, for a marriage and children to beholy, both husband and wife had to establish their identity asIsraelites. When Paul speaks of the unbelieving husband (1Cor.7:14) or children of this union as “sanctified,” he isspeaking about the integrity of the marriage and the legitimacy ofthe children, not about their salvation. Without faith in Christ, noone is saved (Rom. 5:1; Gal. 2:16; Heb. 11:6).

Paul’sruling is thus that the wife of the unbelieving husband shouldcontinue with the marriage because it is legitimate. “But ifthe unbeliever leaves, let it be so” (1Cor. 7:15). Undersuch circ*mstances, the wife (or husband [7:14]) is free, whichimplies the option of remarriage (7:39). She should not persevere inhope that he will be converted. She is the innocent victim.

Throughoutthe Bible there always remains the possibility of restoration of theoriginal marriage except when remarriage to another has occurred(Deut. 24:4).

Binding can mean physically restraining a person or people(Judg. 15:13; 2 Kings 25:7; Job 16:8; Pss. 119:61; 149:8),mending, as with a wound (Isa. 61:1; Ezek. 34:16; Hos. 6:1), ortaking a legally constraining oath (1 Sam. 14:27–30; Neh.10:29; Jer. 50:5). The opposite of binding is loosing or settingfree, which can describe literally being freed from bonds (e.g., Acts16:26) or the release from something that is binding.

Thelaw, a binding covenant between Israel and God, is to be literallybound on one’s forehead as a reminder (Deut. 6:8; 11:18).Non-Israelites who wish to identify with the God of Israel can bindthemselves to his laws (Isa. 56:6). In Num. 30:6, 9, 13, an oathtaken by a young woman still in her father’s house will bebinding only if the father is not against it. If he is against it, itis not binding and she is loosed from it (30:5). This is the same inthe case of a married woman, whose approval has to come from thehusband. However, for widows or divorced women, all pledges they makeare binding since there are no men in their lives to void the pledges(30:9).

Whilecontracts were binding, some had time limits. For example, theseventh year and the fiftieth year (Jubilee) allowed for cancellationof such binding contracts as slavery or land ownership (Lev.25:10–54; 27:24).

Thebinding of Isaac (Gen. 22), traditionally known as the Akedah, hastheological significance for both Christians and Jews. It isinterpreted as a form of resurrection, a coming from the dead forIsaac after Yahweh had instructed his father, Abraham, to sacrificehim (Heb. 11:17–19). God inquires of Job whether he can “bindthe chains of the Pleiades” or “loosen Orion’sbelt” (Job 38:31).

Thebook of Proverbs encourages the wise to metaphorically bind love andfaithfulness around their necks (3:3) and their parents’commands and teachings to the heart (6:21) and the finger (7:3); italso talks of folly being bound up in the heart of a child (22:15),perhaps alluded to by Paul in Rom. 11:32 when he says that God hasbound all people to disobedience that he may have mercy on them.

Introducinghis ministry in Luke 4:18, Jesus quotes Isa. 61:1, which talks ofbinding up the brokenhearted, a reference to his healing ministry.Further, binding and loosing are found in Jesus’ commissioningof his disciples (Matt. 16:19; 18:18; cf. John 20:23), where it maybe referring to the binding of demons and loosing of demoniacs boundor oppressed by demons (cf. Mark 3:14–16; 6:7; Luke 13:6).Since Jesus has the power to bind and loose (John 8:36), he choosesto empower his followers to do the same. Binding Satan is the subjectof the ultimate eschatological battle in Jewish lore (T. Levi18:11–12) and becomes central in Christianity. Jesus encounterssatanic forces embodied in humans and looses such people from thechains of Satan (Mark 5:3; Luke 13:12, 16). Ultimately, Satan is tobe bound for a millennium and loosed only for eternal damnation (Rev.20:1–3).

Paulinvokes Jewish law about marriage by claiming that one is bound inmarriage only as long as one’s partner is alive (Rom. 7:2). Inthis way, Paul explains how Christians are dead to the law, becauseJesus has died on their behalf, thus setting them free from the law(Rom. 7:4–6; cf. Heb. 9:15). To the Corinthians also he talksof the binding nature of marriage but with a caveat: if the marriageis between a believer and a nonbeliever, and if the nonbelieverleaves, then the believer is not bound (1 Cor. 7). But for Paul,being set free from sin (Rom. 8:2) means being bound to God (6:22).

The government-sanctioned killing of a perpetrator of aserious offense. The biblical portrayal of capital punishmentinvolves the concept as a God-ordained institution related to thevalue of humanity and the necessary recompense for the corruption ormurder of that ideal (Gen. 9:6).

Methodsof capital punishment.The methods of capital punishment listed in the Scriptures areseveral. The most common method was stoning (Lev. 24:16; Num.15:32–36; Deut. 13:1–10; 17:2–5), and this requiredthat the primary witnesses for the prosecution be the first to takeup stones against the accused. The burning of a person was rare, butit was commanded for certain sexual crimes (Lev. 20:14). In the storyof Judah and Tamar, before learning the true nature of her pregnancy,Judah ordered his daughter-in-law to be burned to death outside thecity (Gen. 38:24). On occasion, the method of punishment involvedbeing run through by a weapon: Phinehas impaled an Israelite and hisMidianite lover with a spear in order to soothe the wrath of God andstop a plague (Num. 25:7–8); Canaanites under the kherem(divine command of total destruction) were to be put to the sword(Deut. 13:15), and God commanded that anyone who touched Mount Sinaibe shot through with arrows (Exod. 19:13). Beheading seems to havebeen practiced for crimes against royalty, though there are nomandates concerning it (2 Sam. 16:9; 2 Kings 6:31–32).Other forms of capital punishment included impalement or placementupon a wooden stake (Ezra 6:11; Esther 2:23). Although someunderstand this to be a form of hanging, archaeological evidence andunderstandings of the cultures of the time suggest that impalement ismore likely. Finally, the Romans took the punishment of crucifixionthat they had learned from Carthage and applied it with vigor tothose guilty of insurrection (Luke 23:13–33).

Offensesleading to capital punishment.With respect to Israel, the list of offenses deemed worthy of capitalpunishment primarily focused upon human interrelations, though a fewcrimes listed did involve the breaking of covenant stipulationsinvolving one’s direct relationship with God. From this lattergroup, crimes such as witchcraft and divination (Exod. 22:18; Lev.20:27; Deut. 18:20), profaning the Sabbath (Exod. 31:14–17),idolatry (Lev. 20:1–5), and blasphemy (Lev. 24:14–16;Matt. 26:65–66) were included. In these laws one sees theexpression of God’s wrath and jealousy for his position in thelives of those who claim to be his. Mandates demanding death inresponse to some sort of corruption of the human ideal included actssuch as costing another person his or her life, sexual aberrations,and familial relationships. Anyone who committed murder (Exod.21:12), put another’s life at risk by giving false testimony ina trial (Deut. 19:16–21), or enslaved a person wrongfully(Exod. 21:16) could be considered to have cost someone’s life.Sexual aberrations regarded as worthy of death included sexual actsof bestial*ty, incest, and hom*osexuality (Exod. 22:19; Lev.20:11–17), rape (Deut. 22:23–27), adultery (Lev.20:10–12), and sexual relations outside of marriage (Lev. 21:9;Deut. 22:20–24). The final group of familial relationshipsprimarily applies to the crass rebellion of children against theirparents (Deut. 21:18–21).

Attimes, the righteous faced capital punishment for their beliefs. Forexample, at the hands of government faithful saints of God were sawnin two (Heb. 11:37 [a Jewish tradition may indicate that the prophetIsaiah died in such a manner]), stoned (Acts 7:58–59), andbeheaded (Mark 6:27; Acts 12:2). At other times, attempts were madeto inflict such punishment, but God intervened. In these examples,the punishments that God prevented include consumption by lions (Dan.6), burning in a fiery furnace (Dan. 3), being thrown over a cliff(Luke 4:29–30), and stoning (Acts 14:19).

Capitalpunishment today.Severalopinions persist regarding the appropriateness of continuing thepractice of capital punishment in the modern era. For some, passagesexpressing a command concerning such types of punishment are eitherdescriptive of what was going on or fall under the principle of aculture that no longer exists, so their laws are no longer relevant.Indeed, few today would enforce capital punishment for the samecrimes that Israel punished with death. For these individuals, thequestion then becomes whether Scripture, which required capitalpunishment at the time it was written, permits capital punishmenttoday. Those who are consistent will admit that if there is nomandate to require it, it must also be admitted that there is nomandate preventing its use as well.

Onthe other side are those who argue that while one cannot directlyapply the laws of the OT to today’s situation, the principleexpressed, particularly as it pertains to value of humanity, demandsthe continuation of capital punishment at least in response toheinous crimes that cost an individual his or her life, eitherliterally as with murder, or more figuratively (but just as real) aswith rape. For these people, it is significant that the requirementsof capital punishment for murder precede the giving of the law (Gen.9:6). Since the status of humanity in the eyes of God has notaltered, neither has his prescribed method of dealing with thosecrimes been lifted; here the principle requires the practice (Rom.13:4).

Theanswers are not easy, but they are important. The biblical textit*elf regularly balances the expected payment for sins worthy of thedeath penalty with expressions of grace (Gen. 4:15; Josh. 6:22–23).Furthermore, one must account for the perfect knowledge of God andhis execution of his fully justified wrath in contrast to theimperfect knowledge of humanity and the inequalities that sometimesfind expression in modern court settings. Finding the balance betweenholding a biblical worldview that appropriately seeks justice and oneregulated by grace is difficult enough in terms of interpersonalrelationships; when it is moved to the greater scope of society as awhole, the questions are even more significant and even moredifficult to answer. See also Crimes and Punishments.

Divorce involves the separation of a husband and a wife andthe management of children and property, and it raises the questionof the right to remarry.

Accordingto Deut. 24:1–4, a man was permitted to divorce his wife if hefound in her anything “indecent” (’erwat dabar,lit., “nakedness of a thing,” referring to sexualimpropriety; cf. Lev. 18:6–19; 20:11, 17–21; 1Sam.20:30 NRSV). The marriage could be restored, but only if the womanhad not married anyone else in the meantime.

Therabbis of Jesus’ day debated this law vigorously. RabbiHillel’s supporters read “indecent thing” as“anything or obscenity.” So they argued for divorce onthe grounds of “any cause” and proceeded to list thingssuch as burning food or developing wrinkles as sufficient cause for aman to divorce his wife. Rabbi Shammai’s school understood thepassage to refer only to sexual sin.

SomePharisees put this question to Jesus in Matt. 19:1–12. Jesusasserted, “What God has joined together, let no one separate”(v.6). This they countered with the specifics from Deut. 24.Jesus affirmed that divorce was God’s way of limiting thedamage caused by “hardness of heart” (ESV, NASB). He thenruled in favor of the view that only the sexual violation of themarriage can justify a man divorcing his wife (Matt.19:9). Sucha divorce gives the innocent party the right to remarry. For a man todivorce his wife while the marriage is sexually pure makes anysubsequent marriage an act of adultery, for which he is responsible.Even Jesus’ own disciples were shocked by this statement(v.10).

Itis significant that under biblical law, the innocent party in theevent of adultery, whether husband or wife, was free to remarry.

Asecond divorce law is found in the OT at Exod. 21:7–11. Thislaw concerns the rights of a female slave-concubine. The dignity ofsuch a female slave was to be protected under God’s covenantwith Israel. She could not be sold, nor could she be freed in theseventh year, as a male slave would be (Exod. 21:1–6). If theman later wanted to separate from her, he would have to let her gofree. This would be the equivalent of a certificate of divorce for afree woman. It is noteworthy that where the slave was purchased as aconcubine for a son, she was to have “the rights of a daughter”(Exod. 21:9). She had the right to go free if he married another wifeand deprived her of food and clothing or ceased to make love to her.A good example is the experience of Sarai’s slave Hagar (Gen.16; 21:9–21).

Itis difficult to know how to apply this case to the overall biblicalteaching on divorce and to different cultural circ*mstances. Thiscase, though problematic, does speak to modern situations of domesticabuse and desertion (cf. 1Cor. 7:10–13).

Athird case concerns mixed marriage between a Christian and anon-Christian. A Christian is not to marry a non-Christian (2Cor.6:14–16; cf. Deut. 7:1–7; Ezra 9). In 1Cor. 7:12–16Paul addresses this issue. He does so in light of the old covenantlaw that required God’s people to marry within the community ofIsrael. Circ*mstances had changed significantly with the coming ofthe new covenant. God’s people are now identified by faith inChrist, not ethnicity. Paul’s ruling here addresses one of twopossible situations. Either the couple married as non-Christians andonly one of them later converted, or two Christians married and oneof them later abandoned the faith.

Fora Jewish Christian, the first question was whether the marriageshould continue or whether, on the precedent of Ezra 9, it should beterminated. Under the old covenant, for a marriage and children to beholy, both husband and wife had to establish their identity asIsraelites. When Paul speaks of the unbelieving husband (1Cor.7:14) or children of this union as “sanctified,” he isspeaking about the integrity of the marriage and the legitimacy ofthe children, not about their salvation. Without faith in Christ, noone is saved (Rom. 5:1; Gal. 2:16; Heb. 11:6).

Paul’sruling is thus that the wife of the unbelieving husband shouldcontinue with the marriage because it is legitimate. “But ifthe unbeliever leaves, let it be so” (1Cor. 7:15). Undersuch circ*mstances, the wife (or husband [7:14]) is free, whichimplies the option of remarriage (7:39). She should not persevere inhope that he will be converted. She is the innocent victim.

Throughoutthe Bible there always remains the possibility of restoration of theoriginal marriage except when remarriage to another has occurred(Deut. 24:4).

The idea that the church and state should remain independententities in order to preserve religious and civil freedom. While thisidea has taken most of its shape from discussions in the UnitedStates, the Bible often speaks about the attitudes of God’speople toward their government.

AfterIsrael was freed from Egypt, God made it a “holy nation”(Exod. 19:5–6). All ancient Near Eastern nations weretheocracies, and Israel was no different. As a theocracy, “churchand state” were united under God’s rule, but this unionwas imperfect. Prophets frequently challenged wicked leaders (1 Sam.2:27–36; 1 Kings 18:2). Then Israel was divided (1 Kings12). Finally the exile obliterated any “church-state”unity that Israelite society had left. Daniel and his friends had toexperience the difficulty of living faithfully in foreign societies.

Butthe exiles helped Israel to understand that God’s kingdom waseternal (Dan. 2:44–45). In the face of Roman rule, Jesusannounced its appearing (Mark 1:15), but he did not advocate militaryrevolt as did the Zealots of his day (John 18:36). Following Jesus,Paul taught of a citizenship in heaven (Phil. 3:20) while affirmingsome loyalty to Rome (Rom. 13:1–7; 1 Tim. 2:1–2).Peter concurred (1 Pet. 2:11–17), though he alsoemphasized the theme of God’s judgment (2 Pet. 3:7), atheme continued against imperial Rome in Revelation. In sum, thechurch finds itself as a kingdom among kingdoms. While warfare occursin the spiritual realm (Eph. 6:12), God’s people are to conductthemselves as peaceful pilgrims as they look for a better country(Heb. 11:16).

Divorce involves the separation of a husband and a wife andthe management of children and property, and it raises the questionof the right to remarry.

Accordingto Deut. 24:1–4, a man was permitted to divorce his wife if hefound in her anything “indecent” (’erwat dabar,lit., “nakedness of a thing,” referring to sexualimpropriety; cf. Lev. 18:6–19; 20:11, 17–21; 1Sam.20:30 NRSV). The marriage could be restored, but only if the womanhad not married anyone else in the meantime.

Therabbis of Jesus’ day debated this law vigorously. RabbiHillel’s supporters read “indecent thing” as“anything or obscenity.” So they argued for divorce onthe grounds of “any cause” and proceeded to list thingssuch as burning food or developing wrinkles as sufficient cause for aman to divorce his wife. Rabbi Shammai’s school understood thepassage to refer only to sexual sin.

SomePharisees put this question to Jesus in Matt. 19:1–12. Jesusasserted, “What God has joined together, let no one separate”(v.6). This they countered with the specifics from Deut. 24.Jesus affirmed that divorce was God’s way of limiting thedamage caused by “hardness of heart” (ESV, NASB). He thenruled in favor of the view that only the sexual violation of themarriage can justify a man divorcing his wife (Matt.19:9). Sucha divorce gives the innocent party the right to remarry. For a man todivorce his wife while the marriage is sexually pure makes anysubsequent marriage an act of adultery, for which he is responsible.Even Jesus’ own disciples were shocked by this statement(v.10).

Itis significant that under biblical law, the innocent party in theevent of adultery, whether husband or wife, was free to remarry.

Asecond divorce law is found in the OT at Exod. 21:7–11. Thislaw concerns the rights of a female slave-concubine. The dignity ofsuch a female slave was to be protected under God’s covenantwith Israel. She could not be sold, nor could she be freed in theseventh year, as a male slave would be (Exod. 21:1–6). If theman later wanted to separate from her, he would have to let her gofree. This would be the equivalent of a certificate of divorce for afree woman. It is noteworthy that where the slave was purchased as aconcubine for a son, she was to have “the rights of a daughter”(Exod. 21:9). She had the right to go free if he married another wifeand deprived her of food and clothing or ceased to make love to her.A good example is the experience of Sarai’s slave Hagar (Gen.16; 21:9–21).

Itis difficult to know how to apply this case to the overall biblicalteaching on divorce and to different cultural circ*mstances. Thiscase, though problematic, does speak to modern situations of domesticabuse and desertion (cf. 1Cor. 7:10–13).

Athird case concerns mixed marriage between a Christian and anon-Christian. A Christian is not to marry a non-Christian (2Cor.6:14–16; cf. Deut. 7:1–7; Ezra 9). In 1Cor. 7:12–16Paul addresses this issue. He does so in light of the old covenantlaw that required God’s people to marry within the community ofIsrael. Circ*mstances had changed significantly with the coming ofthe new covenant. God’s people are now identified by faith inChrist, not ethnicity. Paul’s ruling here addresses one of twopossible situations. Either the couple married as non-Christians andonly one of them later converted, or two Christians married and oneof them later abandoned the faith.

Fora Jewish Christian, the first question was whether the marriageshould continue or whether, on the precedent of Ezra 9, it should beterminated. Under the old covenant, for a marriage and children to beholy, both husband and wife had to establish their identity asIsraelites. When Paul speaks of the unbelieving husband (1Cor.7:14) or children of this union as “sanctified,” he isspeaking about the integrity of the marriage and the legitimacy ofthe children, not about their salvation. Without faith in Christ, noone is saved (Rom. 5:1; Gal. 2:16; Heb. 11:6).

Paul’sruling is thus that the wife of the unbelieving husband shouldcontinue with the marriage because it is legitimate. “But ifthe unbeliever leaves, let it be so” (1Cor. 7:15). Undersuch circ*mstances, the wife (or husband [7:14]) is free, whichimplies the option of remarriage (7:39). She should not persevere inhope that he will be converted. She is the innocent victim.

Throughoutthe Bible there always remains the possibility of restoration of theoriginal marriage except when remarriage to another has occurred(Deut. 24:4).

The Bible contains two kinds of statements related to properconduct. Some of them describe the nature of God, the sort of worldhe created, and what he has done for particular groups of people. Italso contains statements telling us what we ought to do, both ascreatures of this God and, in some instances, as the uniquebeneficiaries of his redemptive activity. Consequently, the Biblesets forth a moral viewpoint or ethical system, supported by reasonsthat justify its content and urgency. The writers of Scripture werenot moral philosophers, outlining their position in technical detail;nevertheless, they intended to reveal what pleases our God andSavior, so that the saints are “thoroughly equipped for everygood work” (2Tim. 3:16–17). The Bible, therefore,is the foundational resource for moral discernment, the definitivestatement of what Christians must do and who they must become.

TheSources of Moral Knowledge

Scriptureidentifies two sources of moral knowledge. First, all human beingshave the law of God “written on their hearts” (Rom.2:15). We have a conscience, a God-given awareness of right and wrongthat acquits or convicts us, depending on how we respond to it. Thefall of humankind has damaged this source of knowledge, and ourconsciences can become “seared” through chronicdisobedience and doctrinal treason (1Tim. 4:2). We do not,therefore, see infallibly what our duties are. Nevertheless, theapostle Paul argues that every human being knows enough of God’slaw—and indeed, enough about his nature as God—toeliminate every defense on judgment day (Rom. 1:18–20). No onewill be able to say to God in that hour, “I had no idea who youwere and no hint of what you expected ofme.”

Second,as noted above, we have the Bible as a source of knowledge, this onebeing fully adequate and sufficiently clear to guide our choices.Knowing Scripture is necessary for Christian ethics because it offersa high-definition view of what conscience can (even in its bestmoments) scarcely grasp. The Bible proclaims not only what the churchmust do, often in straightforward, concrete terms, but also (atleast, in many cases) why God’s will has its particular contentand why obedience is an emergency, not a safely deferred, improvementproject. The Bible does not, and really could not, answer everyethical question put to it in unambiguous detail. New technologiesand cultural shifts have created dilemmas unimagined in the firstcentury or any previous age. But the church can be assured that afaithful reading of and response to Scripture will, by the grace ofGod, please him even today, whatever our particular circ*mstances.

TheLogic of Biblical Morality

Themoral teaching of Scripture has an identifiable structure consistingof duties and final objectives. When we obey God’scommandments, which is our duty, his ultimate goals or objectives increating us are realized. In this sense, biblical morality iscomplete and informative compared to systems derived from otherworldviews. It explains what life is all about, but also what we mustdo from day to day. This entire picture emerges from Scripturebecause its theological statements are always practically applied andnever presented with merely theoretical interest.

Theobjectives of biblical morality.The objectives of an ethical system are its final ends or purposes:the results that obedience is supposed to yield. In the Bible, twoobjectives have this ultimate significance, one being the anticipatedside effect of the other.

Toglorify God.The biblical writers proclaim the spectacular goodness of God. He ismaximally excellent in all ways as the Creator, including wisdom,power, justice, and love. He is the holy God who, almost in spite ofthat fact, loves us and gave his Son, Jesus, to suffer for our sinsso that we might live eternally in his presence. In these respects,God stands alone, not simply in experience but necessarily so. No oneever has, and no one ever could, be like him. Thus, the finalobjective of all human striving must be to glorify this God—toknow him, to praise him, and to value what he values. Our actionsmust testify to his excellence, honoring him and encouraging othersto do likewise. Obedience treasures what God treasures, shuns what heabhors, and allows his power to work in our lives, causing us to livein unity with our fellow believers. These patterns of behavior definewhat it means to glorify God.

Tobe happy in God’s presence.The second goal or objective of biblical morality is to be happy inways that are proper for God’s creatures. In this sense, theChristian system of ethics differs from moral theories that eitherreject happiness altogether, viewing it as an unworthy goal, or elsereduce it to a merely practical necessity—that is, we sinnersneed our incentives. On the contrary, the God of Scripture plainlydesires our happiness and often presents himself as the final sourceof it when calling his people to obedience. This tendency followsfrom the perfect goodness of God and his freedom in creating allthings. He did not have to make anything else, but he did so; andbecause he has no needs, his purposes must have been selfless ratherthan selfish. He created in order to give rather than to get, and thevery best he desires for any of us is the happiness that results fromour glorifying him together, as one body in Christ. Likewise, then,biblical morality differs from ethical systems that make humanhappiness an intrinsic good, so that any means to it is acceptable.God wants us to be happy, but our happiness must come from bringinghim glory. All other forms of happiness are deceptive and transitory.The heavenly scenes of the book of Revelation show the church whathappiness God has in store for them if they overcome the trials ofthis life (so, e.g., Rev. 4–5; 7; 21–22; cf. 1Cor.2:9; Heb. 12:2).

Themeans of biblical morality.Not surprisingly, the Bible also shows us how to glorify God—howto reflect his majesty in our daily lives, how to praise him, and howto value what he values. Within the whole of this teaching, severalmajor themes can be discerned, five leading examples of which appearbelow, allowing some overlap between them.

Trustingin God’s promises.Biblical faith is the confidence that God will do for us what he haspromised. We believe that he can and will meet our needs and notallow us to endure pointless suffering. When we trust him, weproclaim his greatness and acknowledge our own dependence upon him.Both Rom. 4 and Heb. 11 make this point in ways that reflect upon OThistory with an application to the present Christian life. The gospelis a promise concerning the death, burial, and resurrection ofChrist; and faith assures us that God will reckon these events to ouraccount. Conversely, we often violate God’s commandmentsbecause we doubt that he will give us what we need when we need it(so, e.g., Abraham’s capitulation to Sarah in Gen. 16, with itscorresponding negative results).

Keepingholiness and impurity separated.God is the all-powerful, all-knowing, morally perfect Creator of theuniverse. All things depend on him for their existence, and he isextreme both in his commitment to justice and his desire to love.Consequently, God’s creatures encounter him as “holy,”as the ominously transcendent or dangerously perfect deity. He standsalone, apart from everything else, and life in his presence cannotentail business as usual. The shorthand way of expressing this dutyis to say that we ourselves must be holy, as he is holy, by shunningall forms of impurity. In this way, for example, the ancientIsraelites prepared themselves to enter Yahweh’s presence andgave him public honor (Lev. 11:44; 19:2; Ps. 24:3–4; Isa.6:1–5; cf. 1Pet. 1:15–16).

InScripture, the distinction between the pure and the impure, or theholy and the unholy, is sometimes intrinsic and sometimespedagogical. Breaking any of the Ten Commandments makes oneintrinsically impure. It is always evil, everywhere, for anyone tohave other gods, make idols, and disrespect parents. It is evil tolie, steal, and murder. Even breaking the Sabbath is wrong if itexpresses unbelief in God’s ability and willingness to provide.But some lines between purity and impurity—or, in other cases,just between the sacred and the common—seem to be drawn by Godfor instructional purposes only. They do not separate good from evilas such, but they compel the Israelites to “practice Yahweh’spresence” by honoring boundaries imposed on domestic life. Itis not evil to eat pork, but doing that is forbidden in the OT andpermitted in the NT (Lev. 11:7; Mark 7:19). It is not evil to wearblended cloth, but doing that is forbidden in the OT and passed overin the NT (Lev. 19:19). Therefore, as suggested, Levitical rules ofthis kind must have had some instrumental purpose, serving anobjective beyond themselves. They impose the holiness of Yahweh oneveryday choices, as the Holy Spirit now presses the claims of Godupon his church. This separation of impurity and holiness is, in anycase, a constant theme in the OT, and it carries over into the NT aswell, where it informs the question “What must I do to besaved?” (cf. Acts 16:30).

ImitatingGod/Christ.The biblical writers also construe the moral life as an imitation ofGod and/or Christ, especially when the virtues of mercy, humility,and endurance are at stake. In the OT, Yahweh’s behavior towardpeople becomes the standard for Israel’s own conduct. So, forexample, he says, “But let the one who boasts boast about this:that they have the understanding to know me, that I am the Lord, whoexercises kindness, justice and righteousness on earth, for in theseI delight” (Jer. 9:24). In the NT, similar inferences appear,as when Jesus says, “Blessed are the peacemakers, for they willbe called children of God” (Matt. 5:9), the son being one whofollows in his father’s footsteps. We must love our enemies, sothat we may be “children of (our) Father in heaven”(Matt. 5:44–45). We must “be perfect,” as he isperfect (Matt. 5:48). Jesus commands his disciples to wash oneanother’s feet, after his own example (John 13:14–15).They must love each other as he has loved them (John 15:12). The newcommandment to love one another, following the Lord’s example,puts on display his character and their own relationship to him(13:34–35). Jesus prays that his disciples will be “one,”just as the Father and the Son are one (17:22). Paul’s hymn inPhil. 2:5–11 serves this purpose: we must imitate the humilitythat surrendered all, even to the point of crucifixion. Hebrews12:1–2 holds up Christ as one who “for the joy set beforehim endured the cross, scorning its shame,” resulting in hisglory.

Livingout our unique identity.Scripture defines the moral ideal for all persons, whoever they are,because its perspective is not relativistic. Murder, idolatry, andlying are not wrong for some and right for others. Nevertheless, mostof the Bible’s moral teaching has a target audience, so that itoften contains inferences to this effect: “You shall do X (ordoing X is urgent for you), either (a)because you belong to Godin a special way or (b)because he has done this special thingfor you.” In the OT, the target audience is Israel; in the NT,the corresponding group is the church. In both Testaments, however,the same ethical particularism operates, thereby giving the moralexhortations of Paul and Peter, to cite two clear examples, arecognizably “Jewish” structure or theme.

Thelinkage between gift and task, or supernatural identity and behavior,is the basic structure of the Sinai covenant itself. The text movesfrom prologue, “I am the Lord your God, who brought you out ofEgypt,” to moral exhortation, beginning with, “You shallhave no other gods before me” (Exod. 20:1–3; Deut.5:6–7). Echoes of this prologue also occur frequently in the OTas motive clauses. God will say, in effect, “You shall do X,for I am the Lord your God,” or “You shall not do Y, forI am the Lord your God who brought you out of Egypt.” In somecases, the motive clause identifies the people themselves, as in,“For you are a people holy to the Lord your God. The Lord yourGod has chosen you out of all the peoples on the face of the earth tobe his people, his treasured possession” (Deut. 7:6). Or again,“You are the children of the Lord your God. Do not cutyourselves or shave the front of your heads for the dead, for you area people holy to the Lord your God. Out of all the peoples on theface of the earth, the Lord has chosen you to be his treasuredpossession” (Deut. 14:1–2). In some cases, God refers tothe people’s unique condition to shame them, as in, “WhenIsrael was a child, I loved him, and out of Egypt I called my son.But the more they were called, the more they went away from me”(Hos. 11:1–2). Loyalty was especially urgent, given Israel’sexperience of God’s particular love.

Inthe NT, the mandate to live out one’s special identity appearsoften, especially (though not exclusively) in the writings of Pauland Peter. In Rom. 6 those who have been emancipated from sin mustresist its waning influence. In Rom. 8 those who are under the HolySpirit’s new management must walk in accordance with him andshun the mind-set of the flesh. The Corinthians have become anunleavened batch of dough; therefore, they must “Get rid of theold yeast,” which tolerates extraordinary sin (1Cor. 5).The members of Christ’s one body are to function as one newhumanity (1Cor. 12:12–31). If the Galatians live by theSpirit, they must also walk by the Spirit (Gal. 5:25). Peter tellshis readers to love one another because they have been “bornagain” of “imperishable seed” (1Pet.1:22–23). They are a “chosen race,” a “royalpriesthood,” and a “holy nation”; therefore, theymust proclaim his excellence and abstain from carnal passions (1Pet.2:9–11). Jesus himself says that because he is the vine and weare the branches, we must abide in him (John 15:1–11). In allthese cases, the target audience has a special relationship to Godthat imposes on them corresponding duties or priorities, so that theyreflect his holiness, value what he values, and attain the goals thathe has set before them.

Livingin unity with one another.The first sin separated God from humankind and damaged all otherrelationships (Gen. 3). From that point onward, Adam and Eve wouldlive in tension (Gen. 3:16), and their son Cain kills his brotherAbel (Gen. 4:8). Disunity results from sin; and in some cases, Godscatters sinners as judgment on their wickedness (e.g., Gen. 11:1–9;1Kings 11). It is “good and pleasant” when “God’speople live together in unity” (Ps. 133:1), and obedience to OTteaching would make them do so. Nevertheless, sin stands betweenYahweh and his people, and it stands between one Israelite andanother. Disunity, in all these dimensions, is the unfinishedbusiness of the OT story.

TheNT presents unity as both an effect and a duty (or a gift and a task)of the new life in Christ. We are one in Christ, and we must live inunity of fellowship with one another. Jews and Gentiles—indeed,people from all walks of life—become one body, a new kind ofpeople, defined by relationships that are “thicker than blood,”so to speak, as blood is thicker than water. Paul, as the apostle tothe Gentiles, enforces this theme throughout his letters, so that hisexhortations concentrate on the church, in the first instance, ratherthan the individual. Christians must display the social virtues oflove and humility, resisting selfish ambition and pride, both ofwhich separate believer from believer and each from the head of thechurch, who is Christ. Romans and Ephesians make a positive case forChristian unity among Jews and Gentiles, while Philippians (perhaps,in a broader sense, also Galatians and Colossians) confronts adivisive tendency. The essential vice denounced in 1–2Corinthiansis arrogant grandstanding, which rejects Paul’s “messageof the cross” (1Cor. 1:18) and subdivides the church intocults of personality. Worldly forces are centrifugal, leading us awayfrom one another and into competition for influence, wealth, andpublic honor. In contrast, the Holy Spirit’s force iscentripetal, creating unity where no one would expect it and leadingeach person to self-sacrifice so that others in the body of Christmight be built up in him.

OldTestament

Preconditionsto love. Accordingto the OT, three preconditions must exist for us to know what itmeans to love.

First,we have the capacity for relationships because we are made in thelikeness of a personal God. God created us to reciprocate love backto him, in a relationship of mutual love.

Second,the true meaning of love depends on a true understanding of God,whose love causes him to pursue human beings even though their heartshave turned away from him for other substitute “loves.”This second point assumes that human beings still love, but they doso in a way distorted by sin. Sin causes human beings to live theirlives as though God did not exist. However, God in his mercy haschosen to intervene through his redemptive acts in history andthrough revelatory speech in order to deliver people from theblindness and corruption of sin. His pursuit of his unfaithful sonsand daughters gives us a picture of what true love looks like.

Third,God’s pursuit of human beings in history was by means ofelection and the establishment of a covenant. God chose to makehimself known to a particular people, those who would descend fromAbraham. God called Abraham to leave his country and go to a newplace that he would inherit as a new homeland, where his descendantswould be blessed (Gen. 12:1–3; 15; 17). God’s promise toAbraham took the form of an everlasting covenant, by which heguaranteed that he would fulfill what he had promised. He would bethe God of Abraham’s descendants, and they would be his people.They would receive the land of Canaan as an inheritance (17:6–8).In response, Abraham’s descendants were to obey God’scovenant by circumcising their male children (17:9–14). Thiscovenant would depend not on human faithfulness but on God’sfaithfulness. God would redeem this people to be his own specialpeople.

Severalgenerations later, God addressed the people through Moses, tellingthem that he chose them for no other reason than that he loved them(Deut. 7:7–8). Through Moses, God freed the people from theirslavery in Egypt and gave them the law. The law told them how to liveholy lives in response to God. It also included the provisions foratonement through the sacrificial system. In short, loving Godinvolved obeying his statutes.

Lovein wisdom books.The OT wisdom books Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes give us furtherinsight into the meaning of love. Proverbs exhorts its readers,“Above all else, guard your heart, for everything you do flowsfrom it” (4:23). One’s affections are the gateway to theallegiances of one’s heart. Once one’s affections havebeen hijacked by sinful passions, allegiance to God is subjugated toanother “master.” To the degree that sin usurps thethrone of the heart, it will steer the course of one’s actions(i.e., one’s “path”).

Inthe book of Job, Satan is convinced that Job serves God only becauseGod blesses Job, so Satan challenges God to let him afflict Job.Satan insists that if God removes Job’s blessings, Job willcurse God to his face (1:10–12). When God agrees to remove thehedge of protection and allows Job to suffer, the depth of Job’slove for God is vindicated. Although perplexed that God would allowhim to endure such suffering, he endures without forsaking God. Jobloved the giver more than his gifts, so his love did not turn tohatred when the gifts of God were removed.

Inthe book of Ecclesiastes, Qoheleth (the Teacher) reflects honestly onthe many vain pursuits and unexplainable dissonances thatcharacterize life “under the sun.” Only faith-filled lovefor God can enable one to live each moment of life with joy insteadof striving to find meaning in “under the sun” pursuits.This love chooses to trust the inscrutable wisdom of God in the faceof life’s many enigmas, uncertainties, and sufferings. One cando this honestly because of the belief that God’s just ruleover the affairs of the universe will be vindicated at the future dayof judgment (Eccles. 12:14).

Marriagemetaphor.The Bible uses the metaphor of marriage to describe God’scovenant relationship with his people (Isa. 54:5–8). Thismetaphor captures the intimate character of the relationship that Goddesires to have with his people. Marriage is the most intimate humanrelationship in two ways. First, marriage is a relationship in whichknowledge is the most intimate. A spouse can see many of the flawsthat are hidden from others. Thus, each spouse must accept and lovethe other for who that person is, in spite of his or herimperfections. Second, the depth and passion of the expressions oflove are most intimate in marriage. Consequently, there is no greaterpain than that caused by unfaithfulness to this covenant.

Sadly,as the story of the OT unfolds, God’s “wife”betrays him. How so? His people worship idols in their hearts (Ezek.14:1–5). Because God is jealous for the exclusive love of hispeople, idolatry is spiritual unfaithfulness. God wants both theallegiance and the affection of their hearts to be reservedexclusively for him. The people continue the formalities of worship,but their hearts have turned away from God. The book of Hoseaillustrates the sense of betrayal that God feels when his people arespiritually unfaithful. God tells Hosea to marry a woman who will beunfaithful to him. Subsequently, she leaves Hosea for one lover afteranother. This story is intended to give God’s people a vividpicture of how painful their spiritual betrayal of him is. His heartis crushed by the rebellious and idolatrous condition of his people.Hosea’s wife ends up on the market as a prostitute, and Godtells him to buy her back and love her again.

NewTestament

Thestory of God’s love for his people is expanded by what theFather did centuries later when he sent Jesus to pay the ransom forthe sins of his people so that they might be healed of theirrebellion and receive eternal life (John 3:16; 17:24). The death andresurrection of Christ were necessary because sin had to be atonedfor. This love is a free gift that comes to the one who trusts inChrist for forgiveness of sin and a new heart. The new heart inclinesone to please God. The gift of the Spirit enables one to bear the“fruit” of love (Gal. 5:22–23). As Abraham’sengrafted children (Gal. 3:7), believers are called by God to live aspilgrims on their way to a heavenly promised land (Heb. 11:9–10;1Pet. 2:11).

Christmodeled genuine love by serving us (Mark 10:42–45). His loveshould motivate us and enable us to practice sacrificial servicetoward others (Matt. 22:39; 1John 3:16). It should also causeus to practice forbearance, long-suffering, and forgiveness towardthose who wrong us (Matt. 18:21–35). It should cause us torepay evil with good (Rom. 12:14). Our love for truth should motivateus to act in the best interests of others (1Cor. 13:4–8)in the hope that they may become reconciled to God (2Tim.2:24–26).

This pseudepigraphical book is commonly dated between thesecond century BC and the fourth century AD. Chapters 1–5probably were originally written in Hebrew (though there are noextant Hebrew manuscripts), then at an early period translated intoGreek, and later into other languages (Ethiopic, Latin, Slavonic,Coptic). Currently the entire work exists only in Ethiopic.

Thefirst section (chaps. 1–5) describes Isaiah’s martyrdom.In Hezekiah’s twenty-sixth year, Manasseh was to be instructedby Isaiah in righteousness. Instead, Isaiah prophesies that Manassehwould act wickedly, climaxing with Isaiah being sawn in half (cf.Heb. 11:37). This section contains a Christian addition sometimesreferred to as the Testament of Hezekiah (3:13–4:22). Thesecond section (chaps. 6–11), a Christian work, describesIsaiah’s vision during the twentieth year of Hezekiah’sreign. In it, the prophet passes through the seven heavens, where hesees the triune God—the Lord Christ, the Holy Spirit, and aglimpse of the glory of God the Father. He then hears God the Fathercommission the Lord Christ to go to earth, be born as a baby, live,die, be resurrected, and then ascend back up to the seventh heaven.

(1)Theeighth descendant listed in the line of Seth and the grandson ofMethuselah, Noah was used by God to preserve the human race throughthe flood. His name means “rest,” chosen because hisfather, Lamech, believed that God would use his son to bring restfrom the toil of life resulting from the fall (Gen. 5:29). Enoch washis great-grandfather, and like him, Noah is described as one who“walked faithfully with God” (Gen. 6:9; cf. 5:22, 24). Hewas the father of Shem, Ham, and Japheth.

Hisstory is told mainly in Gen. 6–9. Because of its greatwickedness, God resolved to destroy the human race. But Noah foundgrace in God’s sight, so God instructed him to build a largeboat as directed and to take aboard provisions for his family as wellas selected representatives of animal life. Noah dutifully obeyed,and his family thus was preserved through the ensuing catastrophe.From them the earth was repopulated (Gen. 10), and Noah was therecipient of various directives for the governance of thepostdiluvian world, often referred to as the Noahic covenant (Gen.9:1–17). Noah’s personal story ends with the curiousepisode of him getting drunk and subsequently cursing a son of Hamfor some offense that Ham committed, the nature of which is describedonly as seeing “the nakedness of his father” (Gen. 9:22ESV, NRSV, NASB). His age at the time of his death is given as 950.

Noahis mentioned two other times in the OT. God cites his promise thatthe “waters of Noah” never again would destroy the earthto affirm his covenant faithfulness to Israel (Isa. 54:9), and inanother text groups Noah together with Job and Daniel as those whocould deliver themselves by their righteousness, but not disobedientIsrael (Ezek. 14:14, 20). In the NT, Jesus cites the conditions inNoah’s day as being representative of conditions at the time ofhis coming (Matt. 24:37–38; Luke 17:26–27). Petermentions Noah twice, once to refer to the spirits of those whoperished in the flood (1Pet. 3:20) and once to use Noah as anexample of God’s ability to deliver his people (2Pet.2:5). Hebrews 11:7 lists Noah as a hero of faith.

(2)Oneof the five daughters of Zelophehad. Their petition for a portion oftheir deceased father’s property helped set a precedent forinheritance law in ancient Israel (Num. 27:1–11; cf. Josh.17:1–6). When it came time for the daughters of Zelophehad tomarry, a further decree was issued that inherited land must not passfrom tribe to tribe (Num. 36).

A journey to a religious site. In biblical times, Jerusalemwas a prominent destination of pilgrimage, as implied in the law ofcultic centralization in Deut. 12:13–14. Several of theprophets envision a future age in which the nations travel toJerusalem for instruction (e.g., Isa. 2; Mic. 4).

Jesusmade several pilgrimages to Jerusalem in connection with major Jewishfeasts. His parents took him to Jerusalem for the Passover, as wastheir custom (Luke 2:41–42). As an adult, Jesus continued tomake this journey. The three journeys of Jesus to Jerusalem recordedin the Gospel of John are the chief evidence for the tradition thathis ministry lasted three years (John 2:13; 5:1; 12:1). Jesus alsotraveled to Jerusalem for the Feast of Booths (John 7:10) and theFeast of Dedication (John 10:22).

Paul’sfinal journey to Jerusalem, which eventuated in his arrest, was forthe purpose of attending the Jewish Feast of Pentecost there (Acts20:16). This festival was also responsible for the presence of manyforeigners in Jerusalem in the days of the early church (Acts 2:1).

Ina broader sense, and especially in some older English translations,pilgrimage can refer to a period of residence outside one’sproper homeland (sojourning). This usage recalls the prominentbiblical theme of sojourning, which pertains to the patriarchs (Gen.47:9), Moses (Acts 7:29), the Israelites (Deut. 10:19), as well asseveral other biblical figures. In the NT, this aspect of theIsraelite experience (see Heb. 11:13) is applied to Jesus (Matt.8:20; Luke 9:58) and, in a figurative sense, to Christian communities(Phil. 3:20; 1Pet. 2:11).

(1)Awoman associated with the conquest whose history is recounted inJosh. 2. Two Israelite soldiers entered Jericho and headed straightfor the nearest brothel (Josh. 2:1). There, they “lay down”(the literal meaning of shakab, which the NIV translates as “stayedthere”) with Rahab. They were on a reconnaissance mission underJoshua’s command, as a precursor to invasion. The king ofJericho demanded that Rahab hand over the spies to him. She lied andsent the pursuers away on a false path, enabling the Israelites toescape. Her justification for this action was that she, and all ofCanaan, knew that Israel’s God was with Israel and surely woulddestroy Jericho. She asked the spies to spare her family. This theypromised to do if she would mark her window with a red cord, whichshe did.

Theseacts identified Rahab with Israel and Israel’s God, making her,as it were, a defacto Israelite. Thus, her works justified herto Joshua and saved her family (James 2:25). Although the citizens ofJericho believed in the coming judgment, only Rahab’s faithmoved her to switch loyalties. Thus, her faith saved her (Heb.11:31). The red cord in the window connects her story with Passover,where the angel of death passed over Israelite houses marked withlamb’s blood. Joshua’s forces passed over Rahab’shouse, since it bore this mark. She is found in the genealogy ofJesus (Matt. 1:5).

(2)Amythological monster especially associated with the ocean thatrepresented the natural forces of chaos in the world. Many scholarsbelieve that Rahab is identical to the Canaanite Leviathan. In the OTYahweh fights Rahab in the process of ending chaos and creating theworld. Rahab is depicted as a poor opponent (Job 9:13; 26:12; Ps.89:10; Isa. 51:9). Later, Egypt is sometimes equated with the monsterRahab (Ps. 87:4; Isa. 30:7), although there is no historicrelationship between the two. The NKJV transliterates the Hebrew inIsa. 30:7 as though a proper name, Rahab-Hem-Shebeth, but mostversions translate it with a phrase such as “Rahab theDo-Nothing” (NIV) or “Rahab who sits still” (ESV,NRSV).

(1)Awoman associated with the conquest whose history is recounted inJosh. 2. Two Israelite soldiers entered Jericho and headed straightfor the nearest brothel (Josh. 2:1). There, they “lay down”(the literal meaning of shakab, which the NIV translates as “stayedthere”) with Rahab. They were on a reconnaissance mission underJoshua’s command, as a precursor to invasion. The king ofJericho demanded that Rahab hand over the spies to him. She lied andsent the pursuers away on a false path, enabling the Israelites toescape. Her justification for this action was that she, and all ofCanaan, knew that Israel’s God was with Israel and surely woulddestroy Jericho. She asked the spies to spare her family. This theypromised to do if she would mark her window with a red cord, whichshe did.

Theseacts identified Rahab with Israel and Israel’s God, making her,as it were, a defacto Israelite. Thus, her works justified herto Joshua and saved her family (James 2:25). Although the citizens ofJericho believed in the coming judgment, only Rahab’s faithmoved her to switch loyalties. Thus, her faith saved her (Heb.11:31). The red cord in the window connects her story with Passover,where the angel of death passed over Israelite houses marked withlamb’s blood. Joshua’s forces passed over Rahab’shouse, since it bore this mark. She is found in the genealogy ofJesus (Matt. 1:5).

(2)Amythological monster especially associated with the ocean thatrepresented the natural forces of chaos in the world. Many scholarsbelieve that Rahab is identical to the Canaanite Leviathan. In the OTYahweh fights Rahab in the process of ending chaos and creating theworld. Rahab is depicted as a poor opponent (Job 9:13; 26:12; Ps.89:10; Isa. 51:9). Later, Egypt is sometimes equated with the monsterRahab (Ps. 87:4; Isa. 30:7), although there is no historicrelationship between the two. The NKJV transliterates the Hebrew inIsa. 30:7 as though a proper name, Rahab-Hem-Shebeth, but mostversions translate it with a phrase such as “Rahab theDo-Nothing” (NIV) or “Rahab who sits still” (ESV,NRSV).

Architecture is the technology and the art of design andconstruction. The technology of architecture includes anunderstanding of mathematical and engineering principles; the art ofarchitecture focuses attention on interest and beauty in design. Thecreative imagination of the architect is constantly considering howto artfully manage form and function in the design and constructionprocess.

Architectureand the Bible

Theterm “architecture” does not occur in most Englishtranslations of the Bible. There is, however, evidence of andreference to the architectural activity of God’s people. Inaddition, Israel and the church were contextualized in significantarchitectural periods (Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, and Roman), so themajor empires of the biblical period often influenced the design andconstruction of cities, temples, and structures referenced in thebiblical text. Architecture offers biblical studies a way to betterunderstand the historical intentions of the Bible. By means ofarchitectural investigation, the history and the heritage of pastcivilizations are illuminated. As a result, our reading of thebiblical text is enhanced.

Whenwe investigate the biblical text with attention to the technology andart of architecture, two perspectives emerge. First, architecturedraws our attention to the background of the biblical text. Incertain biblical texts we learn about the design and the constructionthat took place in Egypt, Assyria, and Palestine during majorbiblical events. For example, the patriarchal and Mosaic periodsoccurred during times of expansion and development in the Eighteenthto Twentieth Dynasties of Egypt (i.e., New Kingdom, sixteenth toeleventh centuries BC). For these periods, we gain knowledge aboutcapital relocations along with temple and pyramid constructions. Welearn that during the conquest, Israel took over existing Canaanitecities in keeping with the Mosaic policies. The architecture ofPalestine enables us to better understand the form and function ofthese infrastructures.

Second,architecture draws our attention to the theological implications ofthe form and function of structures designed by God. In keeping withthe scope of architecture, we are forced to understand that what Goddesigned for altars, the ark, the tabernacle, and the temples of thepast and the future included more than just the functionalrequirements of a nation’s religious system. The interpreter ofthe biblical text must consider how the design of these structureselicits response and communicates meaning. These structures are alsowindows on the social, political, and economic aspects of theIsraelite nation.

OldTestament

Citiesand fortifications.The biblical rec­ord makes reference to architectural structures,materials, and furnishings. Cities are referenced frequentlythroughout the OT canon. The city is obviously the context forarchitectural expression. The cities of the Bible are not describedin extensive detail. We learn that Cain was a city builder who namedhis work after his son Enoch. The architectural feature of citiesmentioned most often is the city gates (Gen. 19:1; 23:10, 18; Deut.17:5; Josh. 2:5; 7:5; 20:4; Judg. 5:8). This was an important placefor city life and activity (Gen. 23:1; Prov. 31:31). There was alsosinister activity at city gates. Abner, for example, was killed inthe city gate (2 Sam. 3:22–30). In addition, executionsfor covenant violations were carried out at the city gate (Deut.17:5). There was more than one city gate, as we learn from thepostexilic construction activity of Ezra and Nehemiah.

Withinthe city there was a strong tower. The people of Babel usedthoroughly baked bricks instead of stone and tar for mortar in orderto build the city and the tower that was designed to reach to theheavens (Gen. 11:3–4). A city tower functioned as a place ofrefuge for the people within the city limits (Judg. 9:49–51).

Citieswere protected by a wall system (Lev. 25:29) that also provided spacefor housing (Josh. 2:15). The conquest of Jericho recounts thefamiliar defeat of that city by the very unconventional destructionof its walls (Josh. 6:20). A city square is another feature of thecity architecture (Judg. 19:15–17) that served the public needsof the community.

Thebiblical descriptions of Jerusalem offer a measure of insight intoits architecture. During the rebuilding process in the postexilicperiod, Nehemiah comments on both the construction and the buildingmaterials (Neh. 2:8; 13:31; cf. Ezra 6:4) and the spacious nature ofthe city (Neh. 7:4). From another perspective, the psalmist comments,“Jerusalem is built like a city that is closely compactedtogether” (Ps. 122:3).

Beyondthese textual details we learn through the writings of the prophetsthat cities are the subject of God’s wrath for covenantviolation (Jer. 6:6; Hos. 11:6; Mic. 5:11). Despite this, the nationof Israel is not left without the hope of restoration. The prophetsalso anticipated the return of the people along with the restorationof the city infrastructure (Amos 9:14; Mal. 1:4).

Thetemple and sacred structures.Theother architectural features referenced by the writers of Scriptureinclude altars, the tabernacle, the tent of meeting, and the temple.The tent and the tabernacle were also outfitted with unique furnitureitems described in detail and expertly crafted. The constructionprojects of Solomon are detailed in 1 Kings 5–7. Solomon,like David, pursued his architectural ambitions. The book of Ezekielgives extensive architectural detail for the construction of a futuretemple in which God will reign and rule (Ezek. 40–48).

Thetemple and royal residences were made of stone with cedar roofing.The chamber buildings that surrounded the temple were three storieshigh. The interior walls and ceilings were lined with cedar to coverall the stone (1 Kings 6:1–10). In all the constructiondetails for the temple, the text does not elaborate on architecturalstyle. Perhaps the builders were influenced to some degree by thestyles of the major periods.

Whatare the theological implications related to the form and function ofthe sacred structures in the biblical material? The first is that Godis the ultimate designer of Israel’s architecture. God’ssignature work certainly is not the tabernacle or the Solomonictemple, but rather the created realm. The beauty and the complexitiesof the created world continue to draw attention to God’s beautyand intelligence. As the psalmist declares, the creation, which Goddesigned, is a constant source of praise (Ps. 19).

God’sskill and artistic beauty as a master architect are reflected also inthe revelation of his plans for the sacred structures of Israel tothe nation’s artisans. The skill that the artisans manifestedin the construction process was also a gift from God (Exod. 35:35;2 Chron. 2:14).

Thestructures designed by God for construction were primarily for him.This is understandable because the patriarchal and Mosaic periodsincluded long desert pilgrimages and the related tent dwelling.References to homes and houses in the book of Leviticus are not aboutdesign and construction but about function. The domestic home must befree of mildew (Lev. 14:34–41) and thus clean according to thestandards of the law. The construction of Davidic and Solomonic homesis given attention in Scripture (2 Sam. 5:11; 7:1; 1 Kings7:1–12).

Thetabernacle and the temple were divine residences (Exod. 30:6; 40:34;2 Sam. 7:5; 1 Kings 8:11). For this reason, the design andfunction of each structure reflected the glorious worth of God andreminded the nation of its own uncleanness. Beyond the structures oftemple and tabernacle, the city of Jerusalem was privileged to be theresting place of the “Name” (i.e., presence) of the Lord(2 Chron. 6:5–6) and to have David as the chosen ruler(2 Chron. 6:34).

Thehistory of Israel reveals that the sustainability of these sacredstructures was influenced by physical and spiritual factors. Godoccupied the structures or met with Israel at these sacred places aslong as Israel conformed to the terms of the Mosaic covenant (1 Sam.4:21; 1 Kings 9:6–9). During the monarchy, kings whodeparted from Torah would strip the temple to pay tribute to foreignoverlords (2 Kings 24:13) or would modify the function of thestructure to accommodate the worship of foreign gods (see 2 Kings23). Although there were periodic times of rebuilding the sacredstructures, sustainability was short lived. The ideology of thesacred structures anticipates a future time when their originalfunction will be replaced with the opportunity to live in God’spresence forever.

NewTestament

TheNT refers only rarely to architects or architecture. Hebrews 11:10speaks of God as the “architect [technitēs] and builder”of the heavenly Jerusalem. Paul refers to the church as the temple ofGod. Jesus Christ is the foundation, and Christian leaders arebuilding upon that foundation with either gold, silver, and costlystones or wood, hay, and straw (1 Cor. 3:10–17; cf. 6:19;2 Cor. 6:16).

Interms of physical buildings, the church of the NT was a house church.During the time of Christ the significant architectural structureswere the temple and synagogues. Herod the Great was the major builderof the time, whose impressive temple dominated the landscape of theJerusalem area. Although the synagogue was a central structure duringthe life of Christ and the early church, function is emphasized overform in the biblical material. The synagogue was a place for prayer,Scripture study, and the administration of justice (Luke 4:16–30;Acts 13:15; 14:1).

Thefocus of the NT is also on the church’s function instead of itsarchitectural form. The church, however, prospered and grew in thecontext of a significant Hellenistic architectural period (300 BC toAD 300). In this period the Seleucids were responsible forestablishing large Greek cities across western and central Asia. Theprimary construction material continued to be the mud-brick, whichresulted in rapidly decaying buildings. Although cities continued tobe laid out in a grid format, a more dynamic, hilly format was beingintroduced. The homes in these cities often were built withcourtyards like ones in Mesopotamia and Egypt. The temples of theHellenistic period were designed with landscaping and terracing,along with porticoed enclosures and stairways.

Thebook of Revelation closes the canon with extensive detail about thenew city of Jerusalem, which God will design and build (Rev. 21) andwhich will function to serve his sovereign purposes as creator andredeemer.

Architecture is the technology and the art of design andconstruction. The technology of architecture includes anunderstanding of mathematical and engineering principles; the art ofarchitecture focuses attention on interest and beauty in design. Thecreative imagination of the architect is constantly considering howto artfully manage form and function in the design and constructionprocess.

Architectureand the Bible

Theterm “architecture” does not occur in most Englishtranslations of the Bible. There is, however, evidence of andreference to the architectural activity of God’s people. Inaddition, Israel and the church were contextualized in significantarchitectural periods (Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, and Roman), so themajor empires of the biblical period often influenced the design andconstruction of cities, temples, and structures referenced in thebiblical text. Architecture offers biblical studies a way to betterunderstand the historical intentions of the Bible. By means ofarchitectural investigation, the history and the heritage of pastcivilizations are illuminated. As a result, our reading of thebiblical text is enhanced.

Whenwe investigate the biblical text with attention to the technology andart of architecture, two perspectives emerge. First, architecturedraws our attention to the background of the biblical text. Incertain biblical texts we learn about the design and the constructionthat took place in Egypt, Assyria, and Palestine during majorbiblical events. For example, the patriarchal and Mosaic periodsoccurred during times of expansion and development in the Eighteenthto Twentieth Dynasties of Egypt (i.e., New Kingdom, sixteenth toeleventh centuries BC). For these periods, we gain knowledge aboutcapital relocations along with temple and pyramid constructions. Welearn that during the conquest, Israel took over existing Canaanitecities in keeping with the Mosaic policies. The architecture ofPalestine enables us to better understand the form and function ofthese infrastructures.

Second,architecture draws our attention to the theological implications ofthe form and function of structures designed by God. In keeping withthe scope of architecture, we are forced to understand that what Goddesigned for altars, the ark, the tabernacle, and the temples of thepast and the future included more than just the functionalrequirements of a nation’s religious system. The interpreter ofthe biblical text must consider how the design of these structureselicits response and communicates meaning. These structures are alsowindows on the social, political, and economic aspects of theIsraelite nation.

OldTestament

Citiesand fortifications.The biblical rec­ord makes reference to architectural structures,materials, and furnishings. Cities are referenced frequentlythroughout the OT canon. The city is obviously the context forarchitectural expression. The cities of the Bible are not describedin extensive detail. We learn that Cain was a city builder who namedhis work after his son Enoch. The architectural feature of citiesmentioned most often is the city gates (Gen. 19:1; 23:10, 18; Deut.17:5; Josh. 2:5; 7:5; 20:4; Judg. 5:8). This was an important placefor city life and activity (Gen. 23:1; Prov. 31:31). There was alsosinister activity at city gates. Abner, for example, was killed inthe city gate (2 Sam. 3:22–30). In addition, executionsfor covenant violations were carried out at the city gate (Deut.17:5). There was more than one city gate, as we learn from thepostexilic construction activity of Ezra and Nehemiah.

Withinthe city there was a strong tower. The people of Babel usedthoroughly baked bricks instead of stone and tar for mortar in orderto build the city and the tower that was designed to reach to theheavens (Gen. 11:3–4). A city tower functioned as a place ofrefuge for the people within the city limits (Judg. 9:49–51).

Citieswere protected by a wall system (Lev. 25:29) that also provided spacefor housing (Josh. 2:15). The conquest of Jericho recounts thefamiliar defeat of that city by the very unconventional destructionof its walls (Josh. 6:20). A city square is another feature of thecity architecture (Judg. 19:15–17) that served the public needsof the community.

Thebiblical descriptions of Jerusalem offer a measure of insight intoits architecture. During the rebuilding process in the postexilicperiod, Nehemiah comments on both the construction and the buildingmaterials (Neh. 2:8; 13:31; cf. Ezra 6:4) and the spacious nature ofthe city (Neh. 7:4). From another perspective, the psalmist comments,“Jerusalem is built like a city that is closely compactedtogether” (Ps. 122:3).

Beyondthese textual details we learn through the writings of the prophetsthat cities are the subject of God’s wrath for covenantviolation (Jer. 6:6; Hos. 11:6; Mic. 5:11). Despite this, the nationof Israel is not left without the hope of restoration. The prophetsalso anticipated the return of the people along with the restorationof the city infrastructure (Amos 9:14; Mal. 1:4).

Thetemple and sacred structures.Theother architectural features referenced by the writers of Scriptureinclude altars, the tabernacle, the tent of meeting, and the temple.The tent and the tabernacle were also outfitted with unique furnitureitems described in detail and expertly crafted. The constructionprojects of Solomon are detailed in 1 Kings 5–7. Solomon,like David, pursued his architectural ambitions. The book of Ezekielgives extensive architectural detail for the construction of a futuretemple in which God will reign and rule (Ezek. 40–48).

Thetemple and royal residences were made of stone with cedar roofing.The chamber buildings that surrounded the temple were three storieshigh. The interior walls and ceilings were lined with cedar to coverall the stone (1 Kings 6:1–10). In all the constructiondetails for the temple, the text does not elaborate on architecturalstyle. Perhaps the builders were influenced to some degree by thestyles of the major periods.

Whatare the theological implications related to the form and function ofthe sacred structures in the biblical material? The first is that Godis the ultimate designer of Israel’s architecture. God’ssignature work certainly is not the tabernacle or the Solomonictemple, but rather the created realm. The beauty and the complexitiesof the created world continue to draw attention to God’s beautyand intelligence. As the psalmist declares, the creation, which Goddesigned, is a constant source of praise (Ps. 19).

God’sskill and artistic beauty as a master architect are reflected also inthe revelation of his plans for the sacred structures of Israel tothe nation’s artisans. The skill that the artisans manifestedin the construction process was also a gift from God (Exod. 35:35;2 Chron. 2:14).

Thestructures designed by God for construction were primarily for him.This is understandable because the patriarchal and Mosaic periodsincluded long desert pilgrimages and the related tent dwelling.References to homes and houses in the book of Leviticus are not aboutdesign and construction but about function. The domestic home must befree of mildew (Lev. 14:34–41) and thus clean according to thestandards of the law. The construction of Davidic and Solomonic homesis given attention in Scripture (2 Sam. 5:11; 7:1; 1 Kings7:1–12).

Thetabernacle and the temple were divine residences (Exod. 30:6; 40:34;2 Sam. 7:5; 1 Kings 8:11). For this reason, the design andfunction of each structure reflected the glorious worth of God andreminded the nation of its own uncleanness. Beyond the structures oftemple and tabernacle, the city of Jerusalem was privileged to be theresting place of the “Name” (i.e., presence) of the Lord(2 Chron. 6:5–6) and to have David as the chosen ruler(2 Chron. 6:34).

Thehistory of Israel reveals that the sustainability of these sacredstructures was influenced by physical and spiritual factors. Godoccupied the structures or met with Israel at these sacred places aslong as Israel conformed to the terms of the Mosaic covenant (1 Sam.4:21; 1 Kings 9:6–9). During the monarchy, kings whodeparted from Torah would strip the temple to pay tribute to foreignoverlords (2 Kings 24:13) or would modify the function of thestructure to accommodate the worship of foreign gods (see 2 Kings23). Although there were periodic times of rebuilding the sacredstructures, sustainability was short lived. The ideology of thesacred structures anticipates a future time when their originalfunction will be replaced with the opportunity to live in God’spresence forever.

NewTestament

TheNT refers only rarely to architects or architecture. Hebrews 11:10speaks of God as the “architect [technitēs] and builder”of the heavenly Jerusalem. Paul refers to the church as the temple ofGod. Jesus Christ is the foundation, and Christian leaders arebuilding upon that foundation with either gold, silver, and costlystones or wood, hay, and straw (1 Cor. 3:10–17; cf. 6:19;2 Cor. 6:16).

Interms of physical buildings, the church of the NT was a house church.During the time of Christ the significant architectural structureswere the temple and synagogues. Herod the Great was the major builderof the time, whose impressive temple dominated the landscape of theJerusalem area. Although the synagogue was a central structure duringthe life of Christ and the early church, function is emphasized overform in the biblical material. The synagogue was a place for prayer,Scripture study, and the administration of justice (Luke 4:16–30;Acts 13:15; 14:1).

Thefocus of the NT is also on the church’s function instead of itsarchitectural form. The church, however, prospered and grew in thecontext of a significant Hellenistic architectural period (300 BC toAD 300). In this period the Seleucids were responsible forestablishing large Greek cities across western and central Asia. Theprimary construction material continued to be the mud-brick, whichresulted in rapidly decaying buildings. Although cities continued tobe laid out in a grid format, a more dynamic, hilly format was beingintroduced. The homes in these cities often were built withcourtyards like ones in Mesopotamia and Egypt. The temples of theHellenistic period were designed with landscaping and terracing,along with porticoed enclosures and stairways.

Thebook of Revelation closes the canon with extensive detail about thenew city of Jerusalem, which God will design and build (Rev. 21) andwhich will function to serve his sovereign purposes as creator andredeemer.

The wife of Abraham, the father of Israel and God’schosen people. Thus, Sarah is a matriarch (mother) of Israel alongwith Rebekah and Rachel. When first introduced, her name is given as“Sarai,” but God changes it to “Sarah” (atthe same time Abram’s name is changed to “Abraham”[Gen. 17:15–16]). Both names mean “princess.” Thesignificance of the change may be subtle, since “Sarai”is an East Semitic version of West Semitic “Sarah,”indicating her transition from Mesopotamia to the promised land.

Accordingto Gen. 11:29–30, Sarai was married to Abram before theyentered the promised land. The passage also announces that she wasbarren. Since an essential part of the divine promises to Abram isthat he will be father to a great nation, the lack of offspring is aconsiderable problem and propels much of the plot of the narrative(esp. Gen. 12–26).

Inbrief, Sarai’s inability to conceive is an obstacle to thefulfillment of the promise and is a threat to Abram’s faith.Thus, when a famine forces them to go to Egypt to survive, he tellshis wife to lie about her status by saying that she is his sister.Although it is true that she is his half sister, the statement is alie because he hides the most relevant part of his relationship withher and puts the matriarch in danger (Gen. 12:10–20; 20:12).Abraham’s faith (the narrative does not reveal Sarah’sthinking except perhaps in Gen. 18:10–15, when she laughs atthe thought of giving birth in her old age) in God’s ability tofulfill the promise fluctuates, and he certainly has not come to aconsistent position of trust even just before the birth of Isaac(Gen. 20). As a matter of fact, acting on fear and trying to producean heir, Abraham takes a concubine, Hagar, who gives birth toIshmael. Sarah’s relationship with Hagar is troubled (Gen. 16),and Sarah treats her harshly and eventually has Hagar and Ishmaelexpelled from their camp (21:8–21).

Eventually,in advanced old age, Sarah gives birth to Isaac, the child of thepromise (Gen. 21:1–7). Sarah is not mentioned in the story ofthe “binding of Isaac,” the focus again being onAbraham’s faith.

Sarahpredeceases Abraham, and he buys a field from Ephron the Hittite inorder to bury her (Gen. 23), the first part of the promised landowned by the people of promise. This location near Hebron became theburial spot of Abraham and other patriarchs.

LaterOT literature often looks back on Abraham as patriarch, but only Isa.51:2 explicitly mentions Sarah in the role of cofounder of the peopleof God. She is mentioned also in the NT, along with Abraham, as theone through whom God brings the promise of a son to fulfillment (Rom.4:19; 9:9; Heb. 11:11). In 1Pet. 3:6 Sarah is put forward as amodel of wifely submission because she obeys Abraham and refers tohim as her lord (likely a reference to the Greek version of Gen.18:12).

The idea that the church and state should remain independententities in order to preserve religious and civil freedom. While thisidea has taken most of its shape from discussions in the UnitedStates, the Bible often speaks about the attitudes of God’speople toward their government.

AfterIsrael was freed from Egypt, God made it a “holy nation”(Exod. 19:5–6). All ancient Near Eastern nations weretheocracies, and Israel was no different. As a theocracy, “churchand state” were united under God’s rule, but this unionwas imperfect. Prophets frequently challenged wicked leaders (1 Sam.2:27–36; 1 Kings 18:2). Then Israel was divided (1 Kings12). Finally the exile obliterated any “church-state”unity that Israelite society had left. Daniel and his friends had toexperience the difficulty of living faithfully in foreign societies.

Butthe exiles helped Israel to understand that God’s kingdom waseternal (Dan. 2:44–45). In the face of Roman rule, Jesusannounced its appearing (Mark 1:15), but he did not advocate militaryrevolt as did the Zealots of his day (John 18:36). Following Jesus,Paul taught of a citizenship in heaven (Phil. 3:20) while affirmingsome loyalty to Rome (Rom. 13:1–7; 1 Tim. 2:1–2).Peter concurred (1 Pet. 2:11–17), though he alsoemphasized the theme of God’s judgment (2 Pet. 3:7), atheme continued against imperial Rome in Revelation. In sum, thechurch finds itself as a kingdom among kingdoms. While warfare occursin the spiritual realm (Eph. 6:12), God’s people are to conductthemselves as peaceful pilgrims as they look for a better country(Heb. 11:16).

An appearance by God. The word “theophany” is notfound in the Bible; however, by the early fourth century AD, the termhad come to be used in reference to God. Eusebius, bishop of Caesareaat that time, uses the term (Gk. theophaneia) in reference to God’sappearances to people as these are recounted in Gen. 18:1–5,25; 32:28–30; Exod. 3:4–6; Josh. 5:13–15 (Hist.eccl. 1.2.10). This meaning of “theophany,” referring tothe biblical phenomenon of God’s appearing, is the sense of theword considered here.

“Theophany”is a compound word, related to the Greek words theos(usually translated as “god” or “God”) andphainō (often translatedas “to appear”). The Bible says in many places that God“appeared” (e.g., Gen. 12:7; 17:1; 18:1; 26:2, 24; 35:9;48:3; Exod. 3:16; 4:5; Deut. 31:15). For example, Gen. 18:1 says that“the Lord appeared” to Abraham. Several other passagessay that people saw God (Gen. 32:30; Exod. 24:10; Isa. 6:1). Forexample, Isa. 6:1 says that Isaiah “saw the Lord.”“Appeared” and “see” usually reflectdifferent forms of the same Hebrew verb.

Closelyrelated to these appearances are statements describing God’spresence and glory within a cloud and at God’s tent or temple.During the exodus of Israel from Egypt, “by day the Lord wentahead of them in a pillar of cloud,” leading them (Exod.13:21). When Moses later constructs the tabernacle or tent ofmeeting, a cloud covers it, and the glory of God fills the tabernacle(40:34). God typically speaks to Moses from the tabernacle (Exod.33:7–9; Num. 1:1; 7:89).

Later,when the temple is dedicated, “the cloud filled the temple ofthe Lord” (1Kings 8:10). This cloud is associated withGod’s glory, and where God says he would dwell (8:11–12).In the book of Ezekiel, God forsakes the temple because of the sinsof Israel, so the cloud and God’s glory depart (Ezek. 10:4).Throughout the Bible, the local presence of God is regularlyindicated by the tabernacle and later by the temple, for this is theplace where all offerings are given to God, and where people comebefore God.

Inthe Bible, an appearance by God does not limit God to one place.Solomon says during the dedication of the temple that even heavencannot contain God, much less the temple that Solomon has built(1Kings 8:27). God’s omnipresence is likewise expressedby the psalmist (Ps. 139:7–8).

Goddoes not always appear in the same form in theophanies. The angel ofthe Lord appears in the fire of a burning bush, saying that he is theGod of Abraham (Exod. 3:2–6). Elsewhere, the angel of the Lordis described as a man, but then ascends to heaven in the flame of analtar (Judg. 13:3–13, 20). John describes God sitting on athrone (Rev. 4:2; 5:1). In other passages God is locally present andspeaks, yet without explicitly appearing, which might be classifiedas a theophany (Num. 22:9, 20; 23:16; Mark 1:11; 9:7; John 12:28).

Despitethese examples of theophanies, some biblical passages state thatpeople cannot see God. However, these passages may refer to practicalhuman limitations rather than any inherent characteristic of Godhimself. In Exodus, for example, God tells Moses that no one seeingGod’s face can live (33:20). However, God then says that Moses,without seeing God’s face, “will see my back”(33:23). The entire passage indicates that God can be seen morefully, but only with fatal results. Several NT passages similarlyindicate that God cannot be fully seen (John1:18; 4:24; 1Tim.1:17; 6:15–16; Heb. 11:27).

Justas God dwelled within the tabernacle, at times showing his glory, theNT says that the Word of God was made to dwell in flesh (incarnate)as Jesus Christ and so revealed God’s glory (John1:14).This Word of God is the same word that created all things in Gen. 1and so is genuinely God (John1:1–3).

Implements utilized for the purpose of craftsmanship in somemanner, whether in agriculture, commerce, or artistry.

Materials

Itcan be assumed that early Israelites used tools made of wood, bones,and ivory for the handles, and stone for the working part of thetool. Stone tools were utilized for pounding, grinding, and cutting.Many examples of stone tools have been discovered throughout theancient Near East. Early farmers and workers used some of the morebasic tools, such as hammers, pestles, knives, and chisels.

Sometools were used almost exclusively for the construction of othertools. Spherical instruments made out of diorite or some other veryhard substance were used to fashion an instrument into a usableshape. Thanks to their hardness and round shape, they rarelysplintered and could be used with reasonable force.

Onlycertain types of stone could be turned into a cutting utensil. Thestone had to have both a requisite hardness and a crystalline natureto be transformed into a blade. Only chert and flint meet suchcriteria, but only flint was readily available to the nomad, beingfound in the form of nodules and small cobbles in deposits oflimestone. Because of flint’s brittleness, the artisan had totake great care in the amount of pressure applied in making a knife.The fact that so many examples of flint knives are no larger than afew centimeters suggests that this was easier said than done. Flintknives were used by the Israelites in sacred rituals, includingcircumcision (Josh. 5:2).

Metalsbegan to be used for utensils at roughly the same time Israel enteredthe promised land. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was used forweaponry and for everyday utensils. The molten alloy was poured intomolds made from stone and then shaped and formed by a smith. Asimilar process was used for iron in the periods following theinstitution of the monarchy. Early Israel apparently had few if anyblacksmiths capable of such work, since the Scriptures record thatthe Israelites went to the Philistines for production of their irontools (1Sam. 13:19). Even after the advent of alloys, however,there seems to have been a preference for the more primitive flintknives, especially in sacred ceremonies, possibly because flintmaintained a sharper edge longer, or perhaps because there was acertain taboo associated with the mixing of metals. The applicationof the profane to the sacred would have rendered the ceremony unfitfor God.

Typesof Tools

Knives.Kniveswere made in various sizes. The smallest version is referred to inJehoiakim’s destruction of Jeremiah’s manuscript in Jer.36:23 (some English versions distinguish it as a “scribe’sknife” [NIV] or “penknife” [NRSV]). This same knife(Heb. ta’ar) also was used for shaving (Num. 6:5) and appearsin imagery related to sharpness or exactness (Ps. 52:2; Isa. 7:20).Between six inches and a foot long would have been the more normallength of knives used for everyday tasks such as butchering (Gen.22:6).

Agriculturaltools. Theplow came in various sizes and forms. In the more fertile areas,plowshares were unnecessary, and a smaller utensil similar to a hoewas used simply to break up the topsoil (1Sam. 13:21). Theinstrument also was used on more uneven terrain, where a typicalanimal-drawn plowshare would not work. It was actually thisinstrument that would have been turned into a weapon of war or, inthe case of everlasting peace, transformed back into a farmingutensil (Isa. 2:4; Mic. 4:3). In more arid regions, where the soilwas more hardened and difficult to break up, the larger plowshare wasused. In a fashion well known in the Western world, the largerplowshare was harnessed to a beast of burden and guided through thefarmer’s field to prepare the land for sowing.

Harvestinginvolved the utilization of various tools. Grain was first cut with asickle (Jer. 50:16). In the ancient Near East, the sickle handletypically was short and could be held in one hand. The blade usuallywas composed ofa jawbone or curved shaft fitted with pieces offlint or other sharp objects. As an instrument of harvest, the sicklealso became a picture of judgment and ingathering (Joel 3:13; Mark4:29). For harvesting grapes, a pruning hook, which was very similarin appearance to a sickle but smaller, was used (Isa. 2:4).

Handtools. Severalsmall hand tools were similar to their modern expressions but wereused for different purposes. An awl is used to bore holes. In theancient Near East, this tool was made of stone, bone, or metal. Oneof the more distinctive uses for this tool in ancient times was topierce ears (Exod. 21:6; Deut. 15:17). Saws were made with a woodenhandle on either one end or both ends. An ancient tradition says thatIsaiah was sawn in two (cf. Heb. 11:37). Axes were used for fellingtrees (Deut. 19:5; Matt. 3:10) but also for cutting stones andremoving them from quarries (1Kings 6:7). Early models werecrafted from stone, but by the time of Israel’s nationhood theimplement was almost always made of iron. This is demonstrated atplaces where an ax head is referred to with barzel,the Hebrew word for “iron” (Deut. 19:5; 2Kings6:5).

Constructionand craftsmanship tools.When it came to building and craftsmanship, the Israelites again usedinstruments quite similar to those employed by modern counterparts.The Israelites used hammers (Isa. 44:12) made of stone, with woodenhandles, for large construction jobs. They also had several types ofchisels and other carving utensils (Exod. 32:4; Deut. 15:17). Forhammering these chisels and carving utensils, a large wooden mallet,similar to those used by craftspeople today, probably was used. Aplumb line was used for ensuring that walls were straight. Thissimple device consisted of a length of string with a weight tied tothe end. The plumb line was held up against a wall as it was beingbuilt in order to determine if the wall was consistently vertical. Assuch, it served as an appropriate image for whether Israel wasstraight in relation to its covenant with God (Amos 7:7–9).Potters used a pottery wheel (Jer. 18:3), and weavers used a loomwith a web in order to create intricate patterns of cloth (Judg.16:13–14). Blacksmiths used bellows, tongs, and hammersdesigned especially for their work (Isa. 44:12).

Bythe time of the NT, artisans were far more dependent on iron for mostof their tools. Advances in smelting and in the manipulation of thealloys allowed the crude iron of previous eras to begin approachingthe tempered steel of the Middle Ages. This permitted moreflexibility in how utensils such as hammers could be used and allowedfor more effective chisels to be created. As a result, craftsmanshipin stone, marble, and other hard surfaces became more prevalent, andossuaries, statues, and building facades became more ornate andintricate in design. Multiple examples of such craftwork have beenunearthed in archaeological digs.